A grammar sketch of the
Bugis language
Fieldwork
David Valls
10/01/2014
0
I.
Abbreviations
1
first person
2
second person
3
third person
ABS
absolutive
ACC
acusative
ADJ
adjective
ART
article
COND
conditional
DEF
definite
DEM
demonstrative
DET
determiner
DIR
Directional
DL
dialectal
E
epenthetic
ERG
ergative
F
feminine
FRM
formal
FUT
future tense
LOC
locative
IM
inverse marking
IMPERF
imperfective
INF
infinitive
INFRM
informal
M
masculine
NEG
negation
NMZ
nominalizer
NOM
Nominative
PASS
passive
PL
plural
PREP
preposition
1
II.
PRN
personal pronoun
Q
question marker
R
reduplication
REL
relative
SG
singular
VBZ
verbalizer
Orthography
Here there are the correspondences between the phonetic sound and the spelling used in this sketch.
/b/ → b
/c/ → c
/d/ → d
/f/ → f
/g/ → g
/h/ → h
/j/ → y
/k/ → k
/l/ → l
/m/ → m
/n/ → n
/ɲ/ → ny
/ŋ/ → ng
/p/ → p
/r/ → r
/s/ → s
/t/ → t
/ʃ/ → x
/ʒ/ → j
/ɟ/ → tj
/w/ → w
/ʔ/ → ‘
/a/ → a
/e/ → e
/i/ → i
/o/ → o
/u/ → u
/ә/ → ë
2
Contents
1.
The Bugis language: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.
2.
The Lontara script ...................................................................................................................................6
Phonology .......................................................................................................................................................8
2.1. Minimal pairs ...............................................................................................................................................9
3.
2.2.
Allophones ............................................................................................................................................11
2.3.
Phonological rules ................................................................................................................................12
2.4.
Stress ....................................................................................................................................................13
2.5.
Diphthongs ...........................................................................................................................................13
2.6.
Phonotactics .........................................................................................................................................14
2.7.
Phonetic gemination ............................................................................................................................17
Morphosyntax ..............................................................................................................................................17
3.1. Language typology .....................................................................................................................................17
4.
3.2.
Word classes .........................................................................................................................................18
3.2.
Phrases..................................................................................................................................................32
3.3.
Verb phrase ..........................................................................................................................................36
3.4.
Non‐verbal phrase ................................................................................................................................38
3.5.
Adpositional phrase ..............................................................................................................................38
3.6.
Sentence types .....................................................................................................................................39
3.7.
Negation ...............................................................................................................................................40
3.8.
Questions ..............................................................................................................................................40
3.9.
Passive ..................................................................................................................................................41
3.10.
Clauses ..............................................................................................................................................41
3.11.
Adverbial clauses ..............................................................................................................................42
3.12.
Coordination .....................................................................................................................................42
3.13.
Reduplication ....................................................................................................................................43
Kinship terminology ......................................................................................................................................44
4.1. Historical kinship .......................................................................................................................................47
5.
Appendix .......................................................................................................................................................48
5.1. Transcription text ......................................................................................................................................48
5.2.
6.
Glossary ................................................................................................................................................50
References ....................................................................................................................................................69
3
4
1. The
e Bugis la
anguage: Introducction
According
A
to Ethnologue, the Bugis la
anguage beloongs to the family
f
of the Austronesiaan languagess and to the
subfamily
s
of the Malayo‐‐Polynesian and
a South Suulawesi langu
uages. The la
anguage is orriginally spoken in the
island of Sulaawesi, which politically sp
peaking beloongs to Indon
nesia.
Figure
F
1. Map o
of Sulawesi and
d Indonesia. In red where Buggis is spoken. So
ource: Google Maps.
M
Figure
F
2. More detailed area. Source: Google
e Maps.
Some
S
of the alternate names of the
e language aare De’, Rapp
pang Buginese, Ugi (SIL Internationa
al, 2013). Th
he
number
n
of sp
peakers acco
ording to Wikkipedia and EEthnologue is of 5 million
n speakers.
5
For this sketch the source of information has been a single consultant, Mr. Andi Ahmad Yani, or just Yani, as
he wishes to be called. He’s a 37 year old native Buginese studying for one year in The Netherlands. He is able
to speak Bugis, Bahasa Indonesia and English.
Yani is a speaker of the Barru dialect, which is the one spoken in Soppeng, where he’s from. According to him,
the language is not being passed down to the younger generations. Yani declares himself as a self‐conscious
Bugis speaker, however he affirms to be speaking Bahasa Indonesian to his daughter. He also admits that he
has changed this tendency, lately. The language of the school and government is Bahasa Indonesia, even
though that in recent times Bugis is been taught in schools as a subject, but it is not the vehicular language of
the school. As for now, Ethnologue (2014) states that Bugis has a good health. Other languages spoken in the
area are Makassar, Toraja, Mandar, Enrekang and Luwu.
The data for this sketch was obtained during half an hour elicitations twice a week for about 10 weeks.
1.1.
The Lontara script
The Lontara script is a Brahmic script traditionally used for the Bugis, Makasarese, and Mandar languages of
Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is also known as the Buginese script, as Lontara documents written in this language
are the most numerous. It was largely replaced by the Latin alphabet during the period of Dutch colonization,
though it is still used today to a limited extent (Wikipedia, 2014). The word Lontara is derived from the Malay
name for palmyra palm, lontar, whose leaves are traditionally used for manuscripts. In Buginese, this script is
called urupu sulapa eppa which means “four‐cornered letters”, referencing the Bugis‐Makasar belief of the
four elements that shaped the universe: fire, water, air, and earth (Wikipedia, 2014).
Although the Latin alphabet has largely replaced Lontara, it is still used to a limited extent in Bugis and
Makasar. In Bugis, its usage is limited to ceremonial purposes such as wedding ceremonies. Lontara is also
used extensively in printing traditional Buginese literature. In Makasar, Lontara is additionally used for
personal documents such as letters and notes. Those who are skilled in writing the script are known as
palontara, or 'writing specialists’ (Wikipedia, 2014).
Lontara is an abugida1 with 23 basic consonant and it is written from left to right.
1
Abugida also called an alphasyllabary, is a segmental writing system in which consonant–vowel sequences are written
as a unit: each unit is based on a consonant letter, and vowel notation is secondary (Wikipedia, 2013).
6
Figure
F
3. The Lo
ontara script. Source: Omniglo
ot
The
T pallawa is used to seeparate rhythmico‐intonnational grou
ups, and has a similar funnction to the
e full stop an
nd
comma.
c
It caan also be used to denote
e the doublinng of a word or its root.
Sample
S
text iin the Lontarra script: (Wikipedia, 21004)
Transliteratio
T
on:
nako
n
ëngka taupasala. aja
a mupatala
alowi pacalaamu ritopasaalae. pasituju
uwimutowissa asalana pacalamu. ap
pa
ikonatu nagiili dewatea. nako baicu
umupi asalanna tauwe. muperajaisa.
m
ai tauwe. ajja
padatowi. nako pasala
timucalai
t
risitinajanaetossa asalana (adapted from
m Wikipedia’ss transliterattion to orthoography).
7
Translation:
If you deal with a person guilty of something, do not punish him too harshly. Always make the punishment
commensurable with the guilt, since God will be angry with you if the person's guilt is not great and you are
exaggerating it. Equally, if a person is guilty, do not let him go without a punishment in accordance with his
guilt (Wikipedia, 2014).
2. Phonology
The full inventory of Bugis phonemes are given in the following tables. The tables are divided between
consonants and vowels.
2.0.1.
Bugis consonants
Figure 4. Bugis consonant.
Bilabial
Plosive
Nasal
p
Trill
Dental
b
m
Alveolar
d
t
s
Fricative
Affricate
n
r
Post
alveolar
ʃ
Velar
Glottal
c
k
ʔ
ɟ
ɲ
l
g
ŋ
ʒ
h
j
Approximant
Lateral
approximant
Palatal
w
2.0.2. Bugis vowels
Figure 5. Bugis vowels.
Close
Close-mid
Open
front
i
e
Primary vowels
central
ә
a
back
u
o
As it can be observed in the above tables, Bugis has a total of 19 consonant sounds, 2 semi consonants and 6
vowels. The [h] phoneme it only appears in loanwords from Bahasa Indonesian.
There are the following long vowels:
[iː], [eː], [aː], [oː]
They are not contrastive [ˈtegi] and [ˈte:gi] ‘where’, or [ˈi:a] and [ˈia] ‘yes’.
8
The Austronesian languages vowel systems tend to be simple (Himmelmann & Adelaar, 2005, p. 115), in this
case Bugis agrees with this statement with 6 vowels.
[ә] is the only vowel which is not found as a long vowel. Stressed open syllables are pronounced long as they
are heavy. In closed syllables the vowel is pronounced short, although the syllable remains heavy because of
the coda.
Consonant length is contrastive as it can be seen in 2.1. Minimal pairs. The following consonants can be found
geminate: /pp/, /tt/, /kk/, /dd/, /bb/, /ss/, /mm/, /nn/, /ll/.
2.1. Minimal pairs
The following is a list of minimal pairs or almost minimal pairs with its gloss to English.
2.1.1. Consonants:
Contrast among /t/, /d/, /g/ and /ɟ/
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
[ˈata] ‘slave’
[ˈada] ‘word’
[ˈaga] ‘what’
[ˈaɟa] ‘don’t do it’
Contrast between [ʔ] and [Ø]
(5)
(6)
[ˈtete] ‘breast’
[teʔˈteʔ] ‘hour’
Contrast among /s/, /d/ and /t/
(7)
(8)
(9)
[ˈisi] ‘teeth’
[ˈidi] ‘you’ (polite)
[ˈiti] ‘ duck’
Contrast between /ŋ/ and /ʔ/
(10) [ˈoŋko] ‘this is mine’
(11) [ˈoʔko] ‘bite’
Contrastive stress
(12) [ˈasu] ‘dog’
(13) [aˈsu] ‘to go out’
Contrast among /p/, /c/, /k/ and /t/
9
(14) [ˈkaca] ‘cup’
(15) [ˈata] ‘slave’
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
[ˈl t:e] ‘lightning’
[ˈp p:e] ‘hit’
[ˈk ce] ‘cold’
[ˈc ke] ‘cold’
Contrast among /b/, /p/, /w/, /m/ and /f/
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
[b bˈua] 'stomach'
[ˈpemeŋ] 'next'
[ˈbecu] 'small'
[ˈfetu] 'seven'
[aˈbio] 'right hand'
[baˈlawo] 'mouse'
[ˈnaːmo] 'mosquito'
[ˈbawi] 'pig'
[ˈmenuŋ] 'drink'
[sepˈulo] 'ten'
Contrast among /l/, /r/ and /w/
(30) [ˈaːwa] ‘clouds’
(31) [ˈaːla] ‘to take’
(32) [ˈdaːra] ‘blood’
Contrast between /j/, /ɲ/ and /c/
(33)
(34)
(35)
(36)
[ˈkaca] 'cup'
[ˈbaja] 'tomorrow'
[ˈaja] imperative
[ˈbaɲa] ‘goose’
Contrast among short and long consonants.
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
(42)
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
(47)
[ˈbaba] ‘smart’
[ˈbab:a] ‘whip’
[ˈpoto] ‘limit’
[ˈpotto] ‘bracelet’
[ˈpodo] ‘annoyed’
[ˈpoddo] ‘spinach’
[ˈposo] ‘breath’
[ˈposso] ‘press’
[ˈcodo] ‘piece’
[ˈcoddo] ‘dab’
[ˈcapa] ‘ignore’
10
(48) [ˈcappa] ‘end’
(49) [ˈpoko] ‘stem’
(50) [ˈpokko] ‘capital’
2.1.2. Vowels
Contrast between /a/ and / /
(51) [ˈamaʔ] ‘mother’
(52) [ˈam ʔ] ‘swallow’
Contrast between /a/ and /e/
(53) [ˈmate] ‘die’
(54) [ˈmata] ‘eye’
Contrast between /a/ and /i/
(55) [ˈita] ‘see’
(56) [ˈiti] ‘duck’
Contrast between /a/ and /u/
(57) [ˈana] ‘child’
(58) [ˈanu] ‘some one’
2.2.
Allophones
2.2.1. Consonants
Base consonant → Allophone
/b/ → voiced bilabial plosive [b] in intervocalic position and onset, free variation between [b] and voiced
bilabial fricative [β].
/p/ → voiceless bilabial stop [p], free variation with voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ] or with voiceless
labiodental fricative [f].
The phoneme /p/ has free variation with [p], [f] and [ɸ]. Roots with /p/ can be pronounced with [ɸ], [f] or [p].
The position of the phoneme within the root (initial or intervocalic) does not make any difference.
(59) sapeda → [saˈpe:da], [saˈfeda] or [saˈɸeda] ‘bycicle’
(60) padarë → [paʔda:r ], [faʔda:r ] or [ɸaʔda:r ]
11
/d/ → non‐intervocalic position voiced alveolar stop [d], free variation in intervocalic position voiced alveolar
tap [ɾ] and voiced dental fricative or approximant [ð].
/g/ → voiced velar plosive [g] in onset and in intervocalic position there is free variation between [g] and
voiced velar fricative [ɣ].
/ŋ/ → voiced velar nasal [ŋ] becomes voiced bilabial nasal [m] when preceding a labial consonant. Becomes
voiced alveolar nasal [n] when preceding an alveolar consonant. Becomes voiced palatal nasal [ɲ] when
preceding a palatal.
2.2.2. Vowels
/a/ → open front unrounded [a] with the allophone the fairly‐open central unrounded [ɐ], which appears only
after the palatal [j]. In contact with nasals it shows the nasalized allophone [ã].
/o/ → mid back rounded [o] with its nasal one [õ], allophone between nasals and preceding /ŋ/ at the end of
word.
/u/ → close back rounded [u] in free variation with voiced velarized bilabial approximant [w]. [ũ] allophone
between nasals..
/e/ → close‐mid front rounded [e], with its nasal one [ẽ] in contact with nasals.
/ / → mid central rounded [ ] with the nasal allophone [ ̃ ] in contact with nasals and preceding /ŋ/.
/i/ → close front unrounded [i] which in contact with nasals has the [ĩ] allophone. It also has the voiced
palatal approximant [j].
As seen, [j] and [w] are allophones of [i] and [u], but at the same time they are phonemes. In Bugis, the stress
is usually penultimate, in a word‐final /iV/ or /uV/, they will be stressed. However, when a suffix is attached to
the root, like ‐ku (first person genitive) in the examples below, stress goes to the end of the word, then is when
the allophones [j] and [w] show up.
(61) /wanua/ → [waˈnua] 'village'
(62) /wanuaku/ → [wanˈwaku] 'my village'
(63) /abio/ → [aˈbio] 'right hand'
(64) /abioku/ → [abˈjoku] 'my right hand'
2.3.
Phonological rules
12
Out of the previous allophones it is possible to postulate the following phonological rules.
2.3.1.
/d/ → [ɾ] and [ð]
[‐δ, +ant, +voice] → [ɾ], [ð] / [+δ]____[+δ]
2.3.2. /ŋ/ → [n], [m], [ɲ]
[‐δ, +back, +nasal] → [n] / __ [‐δ, +cor]
[‐δ, +back, +nasal] → [m] / __[‐δ, +lab]
[‐δ, +back, +nasal] → [ɲ] / __[‐δ, ‐back]
2.3.3. /u/, /i/ → /w/, /j/
[+δ, +high, ‐stress] → [‐δ, ‐stress] / __[+δ]
2.4.
Stress
In Austronesian languages, the stress is usually non‐distinctive and occurs on the penultimate syllable.
(Himmelmann & Adelaar, 2005, p. 116). In general terms, Bugis has the stress in the penultimate syllable in
words with three or more syllables. The stress is expressed by loudness. Long vowels also express where the
stress is: [tai ˈla:so] ‘fuck’, [ˈte:gi] ‘where’, [aˈɾo:la] ‘his/her heart’; while long consonants do not always
express stress: [ˈt l:u] ‘three’, [ˈut:u] ‘knee’.
In words of two syllables, the stress can be either at the first syllable or at the last. Stress can be contrastive,
that means that by changing the stress, the meaning can be changed. For example, [ˈasu] ‘dog’ and [aˈsu] ‘to
go’. Therefore, in words of three or more syllables stress is predictable, but in words of two syllables it is only
predictable when the word ends in an approximant, then the stress falls into it.
The stress is also predictable when the possessive is added at the end of the word. The stress moves to the
penultimate syllable, as it becomes, at least, a three syllable word. For example, [ˈbo.la] ‘house’ becomes
[bo.ˈla:.t:a] ‘your house’. The stress also moves to the final syllable when the definite –e is added, [ˈasu] →
[asuˈe].
2.5.
Diphthongs
Every time the definite article –e is added at the end of a word and this one is preceded by a semi consonant,
a diphthong is formed.
(65) [ˈa.su] ‘dog’ → [a.ˈswe] ‘the dog’
Other diphthongs are found in the following examples:
13
(66)
(67)
(68)
(69)
(70)
(71)
(72)
(73)
[da.wa] ‘worm’
[ˈjɐ.ɾi] ‘finger’
[ˈja.saŋ] ‘name’
[ˈje] ‘this’
[ˈjo.ɾo] ‘those’
[ˈkwe] ‘here’
[ˈwi.n:i] ‘night’
[fwo.ˈpoŋ] ‘to come’
In example 135 there are two vowels in separate syllables that are pronounced as a diphthong. Examples
6614 to 143 are vowels from the same syllable.
2.6.
Phonotactics
2.6.1. Syllable structure
In Austronesian languages the most common syllable structures are CV and CVC (Himmelmann & Adelaar,
2005, p. 115). Bugis appears to share this syllable structure of CV as a main feature. Its roots are mainly
bisyllabic.
These are the syllable combinations with bisyllabic roots in Bugis:
CV [ˈlo] ‘want’
CCV [ŋˈka] ‘there is’
CVV [ˈdua] ‘two’
VCV [ˈa.su] ‘dog’
VCVC [ˈe.ɟuŋ] ‘cloth’
VCCV [ˈam.ba] ‘hit’
VCCVC [ˈam.boʔ] ‘father’
CVCV [ˈme.ga] ‘many’
CVVC [ˈda.iŋ] ‘older sibling’
CVCCV [ˈcom.bi] ‘vagina’
CVCVC [ˈme.nuŋ] ‘drink’
CVCCVC [ˈpoʔ.poŋ] ‘tree’
14
There is some re‐syllabification in cases where the ‐e suffix is added at the end of the word. For example,
[maʔ.ˈkun.raj], becomes [maʔ.ˌkun.ra.ˈje]. Therefore, the word ending goes from CVV to CV.VV, and the stress
shifts to the end.
When adding the possessive, the initial consonant of the possessive appears as a geminate sound and stress
moves to the second syllable. For example, [ˈbo.la] ‘house’ CV.CV changes to [bo.ˈla:.k:u] ‘my house’
CV.CVV.CCV; [bo.ˈla:.t:a] ‘your house’ CV.CVV.CCV.
In Bugis some few trisyllabic roots can be found as well:
VCVV [a.ˈbio] ‘right hand’
VCVCV [a.ˈse.ra] ‘nine’
CVCCVV [beb.bua] ‘stomach’
2.6.2. Consonant clusters
Bugis has the following intervocalic clusters:
(74)
(75)
(76)
(77)
(78)
(79)
(80)
/ʔd/ [ˈtaʔ.dam] ‘sorry’
/nr/ [ˈkun.rai] ‘woman’
/ŋk/ [ŋˈka] ‘there is’
/mb/ [am.ˈboʔ] ‘father’
/mp/ [ˈɾum.pu] ‘smoke’
/nʒ/ [ma.ˈkan.ʒa] ‘good’
/nd/ [ˈin.do] ‘mother’
In Bugis is frequent to find glottal stops after the morpheme boundary; the cause is a root which ends in a
glottal stop with a suffix or enclitic that starts with a consonant attached. The following examples are clusters
not caused by morphology:
(81) /ʔt/ [t ʔ.ˈteʔ] ‘hit’
(82) /ʔp/ [saʔ.ˈpiseŋ] ‘cousin’
(83) /ʔs/ [m .t :ʔ.so] ‘sun’
2.6.3. Vowels clusters
Bugis has the following vowel clusters or hiatus:
(84)
(85)
(86)
(87)
/ua/ [maˈtua] ‘mother/father in law’
/io/ [aˈbio] ‘right hand’
/eo/ [ˈmeo] ‘cat’
/oa/ [maˈtoa] ‘old’
15
2.6.4. Consonant position
(88) /p/ → [aʔpaˈɖa:tu] ‘four hundrerd’, [paˌtaˈpːulo] ‘forty’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(89) /b/ → [baˈlawo] ‘mouse’, [kaˈɾeb ] ‘news’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(90) /m/ → [maˈɾidi] ‘yellow’, [ˈɾumpu] ‘smoke’, [ˈfemoŋ] ‘again’. It appears at onset, coda and intervocalic
position.
(91) /f/ → [ˈfemoŋ] ‘again’, [ˈaːfi] ‘fire’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(92) /s/ → [ˈsaɾo], [ˈas̪u]. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(93) /d/ → [ˈduʔŋa] ‘world’, [maˈɾidi] ‘yelow’, [ˈced:e] ‘few’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(94) /t/ → [ˈtabe] ‘excuse me’, [ˈata] ’slave’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(95) /n/ → [ˈjasaŋ] ‘name’, [ˈunuɾu] ‘age’, [maʔˈkun̙ rai] ‘woman’, [naʔdaɾa], [al ˈn.n boˈlae] ‘her house’. It
appears at onset and in nucleus position, as well as in intervocalic position.
(96) /r/ → [raˈbaː] ‘Wednesday’, [maʔˈkun̙ rai] ‘woman’, [karˈtasa] ‘paper’. It appears at onset and
intervocalic position.
(97) /ʃ/ → [ˈʃjaga]. It appears at onset.
(98) /ʒ/ → [ˈaʒe] ‘foot’, [maˈkanʒa] ‘good’, [faʔˈʒelo] ‘index finger’. It appears at onset and intervocalic
position.
(99) /c/ → [ˈced:e] ‘few’, [ˈdaucili] ‘ear’s, [beʔˈcu] ‘small’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(100) /ɟ/ → [ˈɟoka] ‘walk’, [maˈɟa:] ‘bad’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(101) /ɲ/ → ['baɲa] ‘duck’. It appears at intervocalic position.
(102) /j/ → [ˈjasaŋ] ‘name’, [aˈbjo] ‘right hand’, [iˈja] ‘yes’. It appears at onset, coda, and intervocalic
position.
(103) /k/ → [ˈkamːisi] ‘Thursday’, [ˈoŋko] ‘mine’, [ˈoʔko] ‘bite’, [akuˈro] ‘there’. It appears at onset and
intervocalic position.
(104) /g/ → [ˈmega] ‘many’, [m g ˈl:o:] ‘good’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(105) /ŋ/ → [ˈas ŋ] ‘name’, [ˈiŋ ʔ] ‘nose’, [ŋˈka] ‘there’, [ˈoŋko] ‘mine’. It appears at coda and in nucleus
position, as well as in intervocalic position.
(106) /w/ → [ˈbwas ŋ] ‘repeat’, [ˈdawa] ‘ink’, [ˈwai] ‘water’. It appears at onset, intervocalic, and coda
position.
(107) /ʔ/ → [ˈamaʔ] ‘mother’, [ˈoʔko] ‘bite’. It appears at coda and coda position.
(108) /h/ → [ˈaha] ‘Sunday’. This phoneme belongs only to loanwords. It appears in an intervocalic position.
(109) /l/ → [ˈbale] ‘fish’, [ˈlaːso] ‘penis’. It appears at onset, intervocalic.
16
2.6.5. Vowel position
/a/ → [ˈaːfi] ‘fire’, ['baɲa] ‘duck’.
/e/ → [ˈaʒe] ‘foot’, [ˈceiba] ‘monkey’.
/i/ → [ˈaːfi] ‘fire’, [ˈiga] ‘who’.
/o/ → [ˈaɾo] ‘chest’, [ˈoɾi] ‘bottom’, [ˈpoʔˈpeʔ] ‘hit’.
/u/ → [ˈunuɾu] ‘age’.
/ / → ['b ɲa] ‘greed’, [ˈaɖ ] ‘norm’, [ˈiŋ ʔ] ‘nose’, [ ʔˈpa] ‘four’.
2.7.
Phonetic gemination
There’s only one case of phonetic gemination, which is when a noun ends in [ŋ]. Then it geminates this sound
in order to add the definite article:
(112) [meoŋ] ‘cat’ → [meoŋ:e] ‘the cat’
3. Morphosyntax
3.1. Language typology
According to Tryon (1995, p. 554), Bugis is an ergative‐absolutive language and that is the starting point of
analysis for the following sections.
In Bugis word order is not rigid and different orders are found. For example, there are some SVO
constructions as it can be seen in the following examples:
(113) la dafi na‐w‐nu
miong‐e
ART.M 3sgERG‐E‐kill cat‐DEF
'David kills the cat.'
(114) ia
ma‐unu‐w=i
la
Dafi
PRN.1sg VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David
'I kill David.'
However, constructions of this kind are not widely found. The vast majority of given sentences in Bugis, word
order is VOS. This is the prototypical sentence in Bugis:
17
(115) na‐unu‐w=i
oto‐e
la
dafi
3sgERG‐kill‐E=3sgABS car‐DEF ART.M David
'David kills the car.'
Since the vast majority of constructions and non‐marked constructions in Bugis are like the one in (115), it can
be considered as a VOS language. However, word order ends up depending on grammatical relations such as
topicalization and focalization, where the noun phrase in order to be emphasized is placed to the front of the
clause.
For a language, being ergative‐absolutive means that the single argument of an intransitive verb behaves like
the object of a transitive verb, and differently from the agent of a transitive verb. An ergative language
maintains a syntactic or morphological equivalence for the object of a transitive verb and the single core
argument of an intransitive verb, while treating the agent of a transitive verb differently. It is possible to
appreciate its ergativity in its verbal morphology and through its pronominal system and agent‐patient
pronominal markings, which are all attached to the verb.
In transitive verbs, the proclitic is the ergative case which indicates the agent, and the enclitic is absolutive
case which indicates the patient. In intransitive verbs, there’s only an enclitic which is the absolutive case
indicating the agent. It is shown in chapters 3.2.19. and 3.3.
Bugis is a pro‐drop language. The subject of a sentence can be omitted, as opposite to English where
expressing the subject is always a must. Bugis can omit the subject because this one it is already expressed
with a verbal marker.
The head of a phrase is the element that determines the syntactic function of the whole phrase. So, in a noun
phrase the head is the noun that refers to the same entity that the whole phrase refers to (Payne, 2010, p.
31). Some languages tend to mark the relationship between a head and a dependent on the head, while
others tend to mark the relationship on the dependent. For example, English is predominantly a dependent‐
marking language. This is shown by the fact that in possessive noun phrases, the head noun is not marked to
indicate that it is possessed; rather the possessor is marked: “Leiden’s windmills”. Bugis is a head‐marking
language, that means that marks the possessed as opposite of the English language, for example.
(116) na‐anre=i
oti‐na
la Dafi
3sgERG‐eat=3sgABS banana‐3sgGEN ART.M David
‘David eats his banana’
3.2.
Word classes
3.2.1. Article
Bugis has a definite article expressed by –e which does not work all the time in the same way as in many
western languages do, for example as in English. Sometimes it just translates as ‘the’ or sometimes English
18
does not require it as it is understood, while Bugis still needs to use it, since it is also used as a focalizer. It
goes attached at the end of nouns and adjectives as a suffix, and it takes the stress. It never goes with
personal names.
(117) [ˈoto] → [oto‐ˈe]
car
car‐DEF
‘car’
‘the car’
In the following example, Bugis requires the definite article –e, whereas English doesn’t, as it has enough
definition with ‘that’, but at the same time it works as a focalizer for ‘house’.
(118) Dafi puna yoro bolaˈ‐e
David have that house‐DEF
‘David has that house’
Bugis has no determiner article.
(119) a’ka asu
there dog
‘There is a dog’
(120) asu ye (also ye asu)
dog this
‘this is a dog’
Proper names may have and ‘i’ in front if it is for a woman or a ‘la’ if it is for a man. These are articles for
gender marking. For example it would be:
(121) la Yani
/ i Amanda
ART.M Yani / ART.F Amanda
These personal articles are also definers.
3.2.2. Pronouns
3.2.2.1.
Personal pronouns
The 2nd person has informal and formal. The 3rd person has no gender and no distinction between human and
not human.
19
Figure 6. Personal pronouns
I
you singular informal
you singular formal
He/she/it
We
You plural informal
You plural formal
They
iya
iko
iri
alena
idi maneng
iko maneng (lit. you all)
iri maneng (lit. you all)
alena maneng (lit. he/she/it all)
Examples of use:
(122) iya
ma‐unu‐w=i
yanu
PRN.1sg VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS someone
‘I want to kill someone.’
(123) iko
ma‐unu‐w=i
yanu
PRN.2sgINFRM VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS
someone
‘You want to kill someone.’
(124) iri
ma‐unu‐w=i
PRN.2sgFRM VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS
‘You want to kill someone.’
yanu
someone
Example (124) is only an example of use; in real life probably it does not make sense to treat in a formal and
respectful way someone that is going to be killed.
The 3rd person alena is a lexicalization of ale ‘body’ and –na, 3rd person genitive, so literally means ‘his/her
body’.
3.2.2.2.
Possessive pronouns
These pronouns are suffixes and appear attached to the possessed.
Figure 7. Possessive pronouns
My/mine
Your/yours formal
Your/yours informal
His/hers/their/its
our/ours
Genitive
‐ku
‐ta
‐mu
‐na
‐ta
The reflexive pronouns are created with the word a’le which means ‘body’ where the genitive is attached to
it.
20
(125) a’le‐ta
body‐2sgGEN
‘yourself’
3.2.2.3.
Interrogative pronouns
Figure 8. Interrogative pronouns
What
Where
Who
When
How
Which
why
aga
teegi
iga
uppanna
maagai
yategi
magai
It is important to note that most of these pronouns have a similar root as marked in black in the above. This
‘g’ or ‘ga’ derives from the question marker that is described in chapter 3.8 as well as examples of use of the
interrogative pronouns.
3.2.2.4.
Demonstrative pronouns
There are two demonstrative pronouns to refer to an object close to the speaker: ‘yaro’ and ‘ye’ which would
translate as ‘this’. There is another pronoun to refer of an object far from the speaker: ‘yoro’ (that). When
using the demonstrative with a noun, we must use the definite article. Let’s take a look at some examples:
(126) yaro bo’bo’‐e
this book‐DEF
‘this book’
(127) yaro yoga bo’bo‐e
this call book‐DEF
‘This is called book’
In English, the demonstrative pronoun already defines the noun, but not in Bugis, where the definite article is
still necessary.
Demonstrative + numeral + noun:
(128) ye ë’pa ma’num’anu
this four birds
‘These four birds’
The definite article is not used in the case above, because in this case the numeral already works as a definite.
The demonstrative can also act as determiners:
21
(129) ye yasa meong
DET called cat
‘This is called cat’
3.2.3. Nouns
In Bugis there’s no difference between alienable and non‐alienable nouns in terms of using possession so, as
seen above, the possessive is added after the noun:
(130) lima‐na
arm‐3sgGEN
‘His/her arm’
(131) bola‐na
House‐3sgGEN
‘His/her house’
In Bugis nouns do not show variation in terms of gender and number. However we can find reduplication to
create new meanings:
(132) bo’bo’ → ‘book’
(133) manu’manu’ → ‘bird’ (manu’ ‘chicken’)
(134) ana’ana’ → ‘children’ (ana ‘son/daughter’)
3.2.3.1.
Noun formation
From adjectives and intransitive verbs nouns are form by adding a‐ + adjective/verb stem + ‐ang
(135) ma‐lampe ‘long’ → a‐lampe‐rang ‘length’
(136) m(a)‐anre ‘eat’ → (a)‐anre‐ang ‘eating place’
From transitive verbs we add pa‐:
(137) ma‐kkaya ‘to fish’ → pa‐kkaya ‘fisher’
(138) ma‐kkita ‘to see’ → pa‐kkita ‘vision’
(139) ma‐rengkalinga ‘to hear’ → pa‐rengkalinga ‘audience’
3.2.3.2.
Gender and number
In Bugis there’s no morpheme to express plural. They express number by using the adjective ‘mega’, which
means ‘many’.
(140) mega asu
many dog
‘dogs’
Another way to express plural is with numerals:
22
(141) tëllu anaana
three boy
‘three boys’
Bugis does not have any special morpheme to express gender. In the case of kinship, for example, the word
‘urane’ (man) and ‘makunrai’ (woman) is added to distinguish gender.
(142) amure
‘uncle/aunt’
(143) amure
urane
uncle/aunt man
‘uncle’
(144) amure
makunrai
uncle/aunt woman
‘aunt’
3.2.3.3.
Noun creation through noun
As in a similar way to English, Bugis joins two nouns in a compounding process, to create a new noun or a
compound.
(145) fopong palm‐e
tree
palm‐DEF
‘The palm tree’
(146) mata’ ëso’
eye day
‘Sun’
3.2.4. Adjectives
The adjective is placed after the noun:
(147) ceiba fute
monkey white
‘white monkey’
Adjectives are characterized by reduplication when one wants to express superiority or inferiority.
(148) becu
→ becu‐ecu
ADJ.small → ADJ.small‐RED
‘small’ → smaller
becuecu ye meong‐e na
ye asu‐e
smaller this cat‐DEF CONJ this dog‐DEF
‘This cat is smaller than this dog’
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(149) malampe → malampe‐lampe
ADJ.long → ADJ.long‐RED
‘long’
→ longer
malampelampe ye oto‐e na
yoro oto‐e
longer
this car‐DEF CONJ that car‐DEF
‘This car is longer than that car’
When one wants to express an absolute value, it is used the word fom ‘most’:
(150) ye oto‐e fom becu
this car‐DEF most small
‘this car is the smallest’
3.2.4.1.
Colors
Some of the color names are the following:
Figure 9. Colors in Bugis
white
Black
Red
Green
Blue
Yellow
Brown
fute
bolong
cella
kudaɾa
gau
maridi
sikola
The word for brown is sikola ‘chocolate’ which is a borrowing from Dutch.
When colors are placed in a sentence they are verbalized with the ma‐ prefix, so colors are verbs and work as
verbs.
(151) se’di ma‐bolong, dua ma‐sikola
one VBZ‐black two VBZ‐chocolate
‘one is black, two are brown’
The literal translation for the example just seen would be: *’one is blacking, two are browning’
3.2.4.2.
Numerals
Bugis has a base ten numeral system:
One – se’di
Two ‐ dua
Three ‐ tëllu
Four – ë’pa
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Five – lima
Six ‐ ënëng
Seven ‐ feetu
Eight ‐ arua
Nine ‐ asera
Ten – sepulo
Eleven – sepulo se’di
Twelve – sepulo dua
Thirteen – sepulo tëllu
Fourteen – sepulo ë’pa
Twenty – dua pulo
Twenty one – dua pulo se’di
Thirty – tëllu pulo
Thirty one – tëllu pulo se’di
Forty – pata pulo
Fifty – lima pulo
One hundred – siratu
From one to ten there are nuclear units, it is impossible to see any root or any particle that tell us about the
numeral formation. From eleven to twenty, Bugis does 10+1, 10+2, etc. Then, twenty is 2x10, twenty‐one is
2x10+1. Thirty is 3x10 and so on. One hundred is ‘siratu’, again a nuclear unit impossible to break down. The
word for five and hand is the same: lima.
The similarity between ‘dua’ in Bugis (a shared word with at least Indonesian/Malay) and ‘dva’ in Sanskrit is
quite obvious. According to Blust (2013) loanwords from Sanskrit are found in languages in the Philippines as
well as in Indonesia and Malaysia. For example, in Malay (and in Bahasa Indonesia) the word for ‘first’ is
pertama, which comes from Sanskrit (Blust, 2013, p. 291). Once again, Blust (2013, p. 151) states that the
influence of Sanskrit over old Javanese has been enormous, which shows the influence of the Sanskrit
language over the area. In Javanese number two is ‘loro’, however as seen with Malay and Indonesian,
numbers can be borrowed, so, it might be a coincidence or not, but certainly ‘dua’ could come from Sanskrit.
3.2.5. Adverbs
Time adverbs are placed at the end of the sentence, but they rarely can be found also at the beginning of the
sentence. Through time adverbs Bugis expresses tense.
25
(152) ma‐andre=ki
otti
onnaele’‐e
VBZ‐eat=2sgFRM.ABS banana morning‐DEF
‘You ate a banana this morning’
(153) ma‐andre=ka
otti
batja
VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana tomorrow
‘Tomorrow I will eat banana’
As it is seen in the examples above, adverbs take enclitics as other words do. Here another example:
(154) biase=ki
usually=1plABS
‘We usually’
Some other adverbs are: tappa (then) and femëng (again).
(155) uppanna mulesu
femëng
when come back again
‘When are you going to go back?’
(156) tappa akka manu laalo
then there is chicken pass
‘then a chicken passes by’
3.2.6. Verbs
In Bugis all verbs consist of stem which is completed with affixes and clitics.
As said, the basic order in a Bugis sentence is placing the verb at the beginning. The verb may show one of the
following combinations:
(157) ma+verb+ABS
ma‐andre=ka
VBZ‐eat=1sgABS
‘I eat’
(158) verb+ABS
lo=ka
will=1sgABS
‘I will’
(159) ERG+Verb+ABS
mu=unu=ka
2sgERG=kill=1sgABS
‘He/she kills me’
26
(160) IMPRF+ma+verb+ABS
la‐ma‐kelong=i
IMPRF‐VBZ‐sing=3sgABS
‘was singing’
(161) PASS+verb+ABS
i‐unu‐w=i
PASS‐kill‐E=3sgABS
‘is killed’
(162) PASS+verb
i‐anre
PASS‐eat
‘be eaten’
(163) Verb alone
miong‐e maate
cat‐DEF die
‘the cat dies’
The verb also may appear after the object in a SV order and only with transitive verbs:
(164) iia
ma‐unu‐w=i
PRN.1sg VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS
‘I kill David’
la Dafi
ART.M David
Bugis has no copulative verb. Let’s take a look at some examples:
(165) asu ye (also ye asu)
dog this
‘This is a dog’
(166) a’ka asu
there dog
‘there is a dog’
(167) mega asu
many dog
‘There are many dogs’
3.2.6.1.
Ma‐ prefix
Bugis has verbal stems and non‐verbal stems. Ma‐ is a verbalizer for non‐verbal stems. In English, what lexical
category does ‘book’ have? If we want it to be a verb we have to add ‘to’. In Bugis, what lexical category does
‘anre’ have? If we want it to be a verb we must add ma‐. This ma‐ may be omitted when we add an ergative
proclitic to the stem and therefore, we establish the relationship between agent and patient, then there’s no
27
need to verbalize the stem, since the relationship between an agent and a patient can only be established by
a verb in this case.
When adding the ma‐ enclitic to a verb initial sentence, we are shifting the agent mark from a proclitic
position to an enclitic one. That is, since there’s no ergative mark because it is substituted by ma‐, it is the
absolutive mark which is in charge of expressing the agent. This process is called inverse‐marking.
Ma‐ is also used to establish the infinitive form → ma‐baca ‘to read’.
Ma‐ can also be applied to verbalize nouns.
(168) ma‐golo
VBZ‐ball
‘play football’
3.2.6.2.
Transitive verbs
In example (169) we can appreciate what it is just said above: the stem takes a verbalizer, from that moment
we have action, we have a verb. The canonical way of Bugis word order tells us the agent goes at the end,
which is focalized by the definite article. In that case, the verb does not need the absolutive to mark agent,
either, since there’s no ambiguity.
In example (170) there’s agreement in the verbal proclitic, where the agent is expressed and in the enclitic,
where the patient is expressed.
In transitive verbs we can have both, a proclitic and an enclitic.
(169) ma‐anre buku asu‐e
VBZ‐eat bone dog‐DEF
‘The dog eats a bone’
(170) na=unu‐w=i
la Dafi
oto‐e
3sgERG=kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David car‐DEF
‘The car kills David’
3.2.6.3.
Intransitive verbs
The prototypical sentence with an intransitive verb is the following:
(171) more‐w=i
tomatoa
cough‐E=3sgABS old man
‘the old man coughs’
28
(172) ta’rasi‐n=i
anana‐e
sneeze‐PAST=3sgABS children‐DEF
‘The children sneezed’
Intransitive verbs only take enclitics which express the agent.
3.2.6.2. Tense
Bugis has 3 tenses: past, present and future. As in many languages, tense it is mainly expressed by temporal
adverbs without the need of adding any tense marker in the verb.
3.2.6.2.1. Present tense
(173) ma‐anre=ka
oti
VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana
‘I eat banana’
As we see, there are no special tense marks in the verb for expressing present.
3.2.6.2.2. Past tense
(174) jo’ka‐taro
go‐PAST
‘went’
(175) jo’ka‐ria
go‐PAST away
‘went away’
(176) ma‐anru‐n=i
VBZ‐fall down‐PAST‐3sgABS
‘He fell down’
(177) ma‐anre‐w=i
oti‐e
VBZ‐eat‐E=3sgABS banana‐DEF
‘I already ate the banana’
(178) mate‐n=i
die‐PAST=3sgABS
‘He died’.
As seen in the examples above, the past is expressed by several suffixes. The ‘n’ suffix is inserted between the
stem and the enclitic on examples (176) and (178). The rest of the examples which are translated as past, the
tense is given by the context and there no special mark for it.
29
3.2.6.2.3. Future tense
(179) lo=ka
ma‐anre
want=3sgABS VBZ‐eat
‘I will eat’
This way of forming the future is by using the verb ‘lo’ (to want) as auxiliary and adding to it the patient mark
altogether with the main clause verb.
(180) lo‐n‐i
mate
want‐FUT‐3sgABS die
‘he/she will die’
As it can be seen ‘n’ is a mark for the future tense, as well as it is a mark for past tense. The difference in use is
that when we want to use ‘n’ as a past marker, it has to be inserted in the verb, whereas if we want it to be a
future marker it has to be inserted in the auxiliary verb ‘lo’ (to want).
3.2.6.2. Aspect
A clear example of an imperfective form is the following:
(181) lamakelongngi
la‐ma‐keloŋ=ŋi
la‐ma‐keloŋ=i
IMPERF‐VBZ‐sing=3sgABS
‘He/she was singing’
The example above is the only one available where the apparent mark of ‘la’ as imperfective. The rest
examples, we have verbs with the ma‐ prefix and where the translations fluctuate between present tense,
imperfective and present continuous, all depending on context.
(182) ma‐roki suru‐e
la Dafi
VBZ‐write letter‐DEF ART.M David
‘David is writing the letter’ or ‘David writes the letter’
(183) ma‐roki mufi la Dafi
VBZ‐write still ART.M David
‘David is still writing’.
There’s not a special mark for the perfect tense and it is made as described in 5.6.4.2, although again, context
and adverbs help with it.
(184) ma‐anre=ka
oti
onnaele‐e
VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana morning‐DEF
‘I will eat a banana in the morning’
30
3.2.6.2. Mood
Indicative is the non‐marked mood:
(185) ma‐anre=ka
oti
VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana
‘I eat a banana’
(186) idi’
maneng mu=unu‐w=i
la Dafi
PRN.1sg all
2sgERG=kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David
‘We kill David’
The conditional is form in the following way:
(187) akkuia ma‐anjagi manumanu ka lo=ka
luttu kiase=na
fopong
COND VBZ‐become bird
PREP want=1sgABS fly
over=3sgABS tree
‘if I was a bird, I would fly up to a tree’.
And to end this mood section, here it is how the imperative is formed:
(188) unu‐w=i
la Dafi
kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David
‘Kill David!’
(189) tulung=i
la Dafi
help=3sgABS ART.M David
‘Help David!’
The formation of the imperative is with the stem with no proclitic and the absolutive enclitic.
The prohibitive is formed from with the imperative works in the following way:
(190) atja mu=anre manëngi roti‐e
NEG 2sgABS=eat whole bread‐DEF
‘do not eat the whole bread!’
‘atja’ is a negation adverb for the imperative.
3.2.7. Prepositions
Some of the prepositions in Bugis are:
(191) ko sikola‐e
to school‐DEF
‘to the school’
31
(192) pole po’pong‐e
from tree‐DEF
‘from the tree’
(193) ku bulu‐e (ki in some dialects)
on hill‐DEF
‘on the hill’
Some other prepositions are: sibawa (with), jawana (under), munri (behind), siwali (beside), jasena (on), etc.
The most interesting feature in prepositions is that ‘ku’ can take enclitics as well.
(194) ku=ka
bola‐ku
at=1sgABS house‐1sgGEN
‘I’m at my home’
3.2.
Phrases
3.2.1. Noun phrase
The noun phrase in Bugis may be made of the following elements:
(195) Noun
manu
‘chicken’
(196) Adjective+noun
becu kampong
‘small village’
(197) Noun+adjective
ceiba fute
monkey white
‘white monkey’
(198) Noun+Adjective+DEF
risi bolong‐e
line black‐DEF
‘the black line’
(199) Noun+DEF
asu‐e
dog‐DEF
‘The dog’
32
(200) Noun+GEN
bola‐na
la
Dafi
house‐3sgGEN ART.M David
‘David’s house’
(201) Noun+ABS
bola=ka
house=1sgABS
‘My house’
(202) Numeral+noun
tëllu bola
three house
‘three houses’
3.2.6. Articles and demonstratives
A pragmatic issue that plays a significant role in the encoding of noun is identifiability and referentiality.
Certain noun phrases refer to entities that the speaker judges should be identifiable by the addressee. In
English, the article ‘the’ is one means of expressing identifiability. In Bugis, as said on chapter 3.2.1, it is the
definite article in the suffix form of –e.
(203) jo’ka anan‐e
ku sikola‐e
go
children‐DEF PREP school‐DEF
‘The children go to the school’
The use of –e in example (203) instructs the addressee that there are some specific children that go to a
specific school, which the speaker is referring to. Furthermore, if this were a real communication situation,
the speaker would probably assume that the addressee knows who these children are and what school we are
talking about. That is, the speaker treats the participants in question as identifiable given the information the
speaker assumes the addressee has available. If we don’t use the definite article –e, we assume that we are
just talking about any children that go to just any school. Bugis has a more extensive use of the article than
English, marking the direct object, as well as used probably due to prosodic or pragmatic reasons, for example
to focalize. Therefore there are many instances where the Bugis speaker feels the need of defining a noun,
whereas in English it is not required.
(204) u‐foy=i
ye tëryang‐e
1sgERG‐like=2sgABS this dance‐e
‘I like this dance’
Example (204) English has enough defining ‘dance’ with the demonstrative ‘this’, therefore there’s no need
for an extra identifiable particle such as ‘the’, whereas Bugis still requires the definite article to specify that
we are talking about a known and particular dance.
33
One added feature of –e is that when added to a verb, it nominalizes it by defining it.
(205) ma‐safeda‐e
VBZ‐bike‐DEF
‘the biker’
The example above is quite curious; as we take a noun, we verbalize it with ma‐, and then we nominalize it
back again with –e to express the person who is doing the action.
As seen, Bugis has demonstrative pronouns, which are free forms. They precede the noun. Demonstratives
imply “pointing to” or “demonstrating” the object they refer to.
(206) ye bola‐e
this house‐DEF
‘This house’
(207) yoro bola‐e
that house‐DEF
‘That house’
In addition to exhibiting the features common to the pronoun system of the language (number, gender, etc.),
demonstratives often express distance with respect to the speaker or to the hearer, this is the case of Bugis
which has two degrees of distance as seen on examples (206) and (207). Some languages make a distinction
between items close to the hearer, items close to the speaker, and items distant from both. That does not
seem to be the case of Bugis.
3.2.7. Numerals
When counting objects, the number is placed before the noun:
(208) tëllu bola
three house
‘three houses’
When there’s an adjective, the order is numeral + adjective + noun:
(209) dua tanru‐na
be’mbe’‐e
two horn‐3sgGEN goat‐DEF
‘the goat’s two horns’
To indicate the number of people who is doing the action, we must place the numeral after the personal
pronoun, and then the agent is attached to the numeral.
(210) idi
dua=ki
PRN.1pl two=2sgABS
‘(the) two of us’
The numeral acts as a definite article, therefore there’s no need for the definite article ‘‐e’.
34
A sentence can start by a numeral, being this one the subject of a sentence.
(211) tëllu=i
na‐unu
meong‐e
four=3sgABS 3sgERG‐kill cat‐DEF
‘The four of us kill the cat’
In (211) the numeral takes an enclitic.
3.2.8. Possession
The full paradigm of possessive suffixes is given in chapter 3.2.2.2 in Figure 7. Possession is expressed by a
genitive enclitic.
(212) bola‐na
la David
house‐3sgGEN ART.M David
‘David’s house’
(213) ulu‐na
ambo’=ko
head‐3sgGEN father=3sgABS
‘My father’s head’
Languages typically express many semantic relationships with the same formal construction used to express
ownership. So, we have possessive constructions:
(214) ulu‐ku
head‐1sgGEN
‘My head’
(215) bola‐ku
house‐1sgGEN
‘My house’
And there are constructions where even though Bugis uses a possessive, possession is not being indicated. In
these examples, family relationships are indicated:
(216) anure‐ku
niece‐1sgGEN
‘My niece’
(217) silo‐ku
friend‐1sgGEN
‘my friend’
Bugis has no inherence in possession.
35
3.2.9. Relative clauses
The following exemple is a relative clause:
(218) yare roti‐e
foro‐mull=i
iwini
This bread‐DEF REL‐buy=3sgABS yesterday
‘This is the bread that he bought yesterday’
The following is the analysis of (36):
→ yare ro e fura‐ [Ø mulli iwini]
The head, the noun phrase modified by the clause, is ‘yare rotie’, the restricting clause is [Ø mulli iwini]. The
relativized noun phrase, which is the co‐referent element with the head noun, in this case is Ø. The relativizer
in Bugis is shown as a prefix attached to the verb, ‘foro’. In this case, the verb takes the relativizer and there’s
no agent insertion in between. The agent moves to the enclitic position, so there’s inverse‐marking.
Sometimes the Bugis language can omit ‘that’ in a sentence:
(219) ma‐kare Amanda fapara=ko manumanu‐e
VBZ‐say Amanada like=2sgABS bird‐DEF
‘Amanda says that you like birds’ → (lit. Amanda say you like bird)
→ [[makare Amanda]main clause + [faparako manumanue]sub. clause]complex sentence
3.3.
Verb phrase
As mentioned in chapter 26, verbs have patient and agent agreement, but there’s no gender agreement. In
the formation of a verb phrase, the transitive verb may take an ergative proclitic to express the agent and an
absolutive enclitic to express the patient. The intransitive verb may take an absolutive enclitic to express the
agent.
As can be appreciated throughout the text, these are treated as clitics due to the fact that are found in more
than one lexical category: verbs, adverbs and prepositions.
Figure 10. Clitics in Bugis.
I
You/you all formal
You/you all informal
She/he/it
We/us
Ergative
ku‐/u‐
ta‐
mu‐
na‐
ki‐
Absolutive
‐ka
‐ki
‐ko
‐i
‐ki
36
(220) lo=i
ma‐nari
want=he/she VBZ‐dance
‘he/she wants to dance’
(221) lo=ka ma‐nari
want=I VBZ‐dance
‘I want to dance’
(222) tabena=i pire pole po’po’ng‐e
fall=it pear PREP tree‐DEF
‘it fall a pear from the tree’
In many occasions instead of having –i for the 3sg absolutive, there’s a –wi. There’s no difference in meaning
at all. Looking at the examples it can be seen that –wi always may appear after just any vowel. This [w] is an
epenthetic sound because it is only found after a vowel, but not after a consonant, therefore it can’t be an
allomorph of –i, as otherwise it would appear just after any sound. So, this [w] is an epenthetic sound that
sometimes appears after a vowel and it is also used to emphasize the agent or the patient. This epenthetic [w]
also appears in front of the verb:
(223) u‐w‐anre
PRN.1sgERG‐E‐eat
‘I eat’
Let’s take a look at the ambiguity of the following constructions, which are translated to English with the same
meaning:
(224) na‐unu‐w=i
oto‐e la Dafi
3sgERG‐kill‐E=3sgABS car‐DEF ART.M David
‘David kills the car’
(225) na‐unu‐w=i
la Dafi
oto‐e
3sgERG‐kill=3sgABS ART.M David car‐DEF
*‘David kills the car’
In an ergative language, the absolutive in a transitive verb establishes the object, and the ergative the subject.
Therefore we have na‐unu‐w=i → erga ve‐kill=absolutive or S‐kill=O.
It is important to point out the ambiguity of a no contextualized form such as:
(226) na=unu‐w=i
he/she/it=kill‐E=he/she/it
The ambiguity is due to fact that these clitics give information on agent, patient, and on person, but not on
gender or if it is human or not as in the case of the example 37. That’s why that depending on the context,
37
examples (37) and (37) may have the same meaning and translation. However, taking the canonical order for
Bugis example (224) is well translated and example (225) must say ‘The car kills David’.
3.4.
Non‐verbal phrase
Bugis allows generating sentences without any verb at all. On type of these sentences are the ones which in
many languages require a copulative verb, such as in English. In this case, Bugis has no copulative verb, so the
sentences are generated with no verb. We have already seen examples (165), (166) and (167) on chapter
3.2.6
Another way of generating sentences with no verbs is with the existential adverb ‘ngka’, which it is translated
as ‘there’.
(227) ngka anana
there children
‘There are children’
3.5.
Adpositional phrase
Bugis has free prepositions, therefore it has prepositional phrases. The basic order for this kind of phrases is
PREP=agent marker + O. As we can see the preposition has the agent attached as an enclitic.
(228) yase’=na
mega‐e
PREP=3sgABS table‐DEF
‘on the table’
(229) yawa=na
mega‐e
PREP=3sgABS table‐DEF
‘under the table’
Sometimes adpositional phrases are formed by using directional or locational particles such as ki or ku. These
particles can be combined with verbal phrases to indicate motion as seen in the following examples:
(230) ma‐tama=ka
ku naforony‐e
VBZ‐enter=1sgABS DIR kitchen‐DEF
‘I enter the kitchen’
(231) joka=i
anana‐e
ku sikula‐e
walk=3pABS children‐DEF DIR school‐DEF
‘The children walk to the school’
38
In the following example there is the use of a locational, by when the location is fixed:
(232) ma‐cule anana‐e
ki
olona bola‐e
VBZ‐play children‐DEF LOC front house‐DEF
‘The children play in front of the house’
When the location is inside or in a high place, it is used the locative ki plus alën ‘inside’ or ase ‘up’. Let’s take a
look at an example:
(233) aka
pir‐e ki alën=na
karanyjangng‐e
there is pear‐DEF inside=3sgABS basket‐DEF
‘There is the pear inside the basket’
3.6.
Sentence types
3.6.1. Declarative
One common structure for declarative sentences with transitive verbs is Agent=verb=Patient. The proclitic is
the ergative that agrees in person with the agent, and the absolutive agrees in person with the patient.
(234) Dafi na‐anre‐w=i
manumanu
David 3sgERG‐eat‐E=3sgABS chicken
‘David eats chicken’
Bugis is a split ergative‐absolutive language, which means that it has a double behavior. This double behavior
can be seen in the declarative sentences.
The declarative ergative‐absolutive structure goes as follows:
(235) ma‐anre=ka oti=ø
VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana=ABS
‘I eat a banana’
Nominative‐absolutive structures:
(236) meong ma‐unu=ka
cat.NOM VBZ‐kill=1sgABS
‘The cat kills me’
(237) iya
ma‐unu=i
la Dafi
PRN.1sg VBZ‐kill=3pABS ART.M David
In intransitive verbs there’s only the enclitic, the absolutive which agrees in person with the agent.
(238) ma‐ore‐w=i
la Dafi
VBZ‐cough‐E=3sgABS ART.M David
‘David coughs’
39
3.7.
Negation
Negation is expressed by the particle ‘de´ followed by the ergative.
(239) de’=u
yoka ku bola‐ku
NEG=PRN.1sgERG go PREP house‐PRN.1sg.GEN
‘I don’t go to my house’
(240) yoro guru
de’=na
ma‐baca bo’bo’
that teacher NEG=PRN.3sgERG VBZ‐read book
‘That teacher does not read a book’
3.8.
Questions
There are several ways of forming questions in Bugis. One of them is, as with many languages, formed by a
change of intonation when speaking.
Besides intonation, there are two ways of constructing questions. The first way is with an interrogative
pronoun:
(241) yategi oto‐mu?
which car‐PRN.2sg.GEN
‘Which is your car?’
(242) teegi asu‐e?
where dog‐DEF
‘where is the dog?’
And the second way is with the particle ‘ga’ for yes‐no questions.
(243) asu ga ye?
dog Q this
‘Is this a dog?’
(244) yoro ga bola‐nu?
That Q house‐PRN.2sgGEN
‘Is that your house?’
When negating a yes‐no question, the question particle is reduplicated and attached as a suffix to the
negation particle.
(245) de‐ga ga na=joka anana‐e
ki
sikola‐e
NEG‐Q Q 3plERG=go children‐DEF PREP school‐DEF
‘Don’t the children go to the school?’
40
3.9.
Passive
The passive voice is constructed by adding an i‐ at the verbal stem. Let’s take a look at some examples:
(246) aga i‐anre
what PASS‐eat
‘what will be eaten’
(247) i‐unu‐w=i
la Dafi
ku oto‐e
PASS‐kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David PREP car‐DEF
‘David is killed by the car’
On example (247) we can observe how the agent is placed at the end, so we have a VOS order and there must
be the absolutive mark.
Another way of forming the passive is with the prefix ri‐ which occurs before the transitive and intransitive
verbs:
(248) riasuro → to be ordered
(249) ritiwi’ → to be taken
(250) riagelli → to be angry (in Bugis this is an intransi ve verb)
3.10. Clauses
3.10.1. Possessive clauses
Languages usually employ existential and/or locational structures to express the notion of possession, so
possession it is not only expressed by a possessive pronoun but also for a verb such as ‘to have’. This is the
case in Bugis.
(251) Dafi puna yoro bola‐e
David have that house‐DEF
‘David has that house’
3.10.2. Complement clauses
A prototypical complement clause is the one that functions as an argument (subject or object) of some other
clause (Payne, 2010, p. 313).
(252) lo’=i
ma‐anre‐w=i
roti‐e
la
Koert
want=3sgABS VBZ‐eat‐E=3sgABS bread‐DEF ART.M Koert
‘Koert wants to eat the bread’
Example (252) is an object complement clause where the constituents have the following roles:
41
[lo’i manrewi rotie la Koert] → main clause
[manrewi rotie] → complement clause
3.11. Adverbial clauses
(253) pas ma‐jame i
Amanda ujian‐e
tappa bosi
ADV VBZ‐do ART.F Amanda exam‐DEF then rain
‘Amanda was doing the exam when it started to rain’
In the previous example we have a simultaneous clause. If we compare it with English, we see that ‘pas’ is the
equivalent of the English ‘when’, which is the particle that allows the simultaneity. In Bugis it goes at the
beginning of the clause.
(254) ma‐jame i
Amanda ujian‐e
na la‐ma‐kelong=i
la Yani
VBZ‐do ART.F Amanda exam‐DEF and IMPRF‐VBZ‐sing=3sgABS ART.M Yani
‘Amanda was doing the exam while Yani was singing’
If we take the literal meaning of (254) it says: ‘Amanda does the exam and Yani is singing’. However, we can
see how the verb ‘majame’ does not take any clitic to express agent, while the verb ‘makelong’ it takes the
absolutive to express agent, doing inverse‐marking. The two sentences are linked by a conjunction, and
indeed, the meaning is the same as it infers simultaneity.
3.12. Coordination
Let’s take, again, example (254) but in this case let’s have a literal translation of it.
(255) ma‐jame i
Amanda ujian‐e
na la‐ma‐kelong=i
la Yani
VBZ‐do ART.F Amanda exam‐DEF and IMPRF‐VBZ‐sing=3sgABS ART.M Yani
‘Amanda does the exam and Yani is singing’
As it can be seen conjunction works just as in English, which is placing ‘na’ (and) in the middle of the two
clauses. In the same way works disjunction:
(256) ma‐anre jampu ato yo’ka ma‐pasayangki
VBZ‐eat fruit or go VBZ‐kite
‘to eat fruit or to go to play with the kite’
42
3.13. Reduplication
Bugis uses reduplication in several ways, although some of the reduplications are already lexicalized and most
of them are no longer productive.
(257) manu ‘chicken’ → manumanu ‘bird’
(258) bola ‘house’ → bolabola ‘small house’ (in this case reduplica on acts as a diminu ve)
(259) batu ‘stone’ → batubatu ‘pebble’
(260) ana ‘son/daughter’ → anana ‘children’ (in this case reduplica on is used to express plural, but it is
lexicalized and no longer productive to create new forms of plural).
43
4.
Kinship terminology
The following list is a compilation of kinship terms in Bugis:
Figure 11. Kinship terms in Bugis.
English
Father
Mother
Siblings
Brother
Sister
Older brother
Older sister
Younger brother
Younger sister
Middle brother
Middle sister
Grandparents
Great grandparents
Uncle
Aunt
Cousin male
Cousin female
Son
Daughter
Children
Mother in law
Father in law
Sister in law
Brother in law
Stepfather
Stepmother
Stepbrother
Stepsister
Cousin’s son
Cousin’s daughter
Cousin’s children
Grandfather
Grandmother
Parents
Nephew
Niece
Wife
Husband
Bugis
ambo’
indo’
silasuɾang
foɾorane
para’kunrai
daing (urane)
daing (makunrai)
anri (urane)
anri (makunrai)
anatanga
anatanga
nene’
nene’ utu
amuɾe (urane)
amuɾe (mankunrai)
sapisang (urane)
sapisang (makunrai)
ana (burane)
ana (makunrai)
ana ana
matua (urane)
matua (makunrai)
ifa (burane)
ifa (makunrai)
fura ambo’
fura indo’
amforo (urane)
amforo (makunrai)
anuɾe (urane)
anuɾe (makunrai)
ana’na sapisang
laato
nene
indoambo
anure (urane)
anure (makunrai)
baine
lakkai
Bugis has no gender inflection, but at the same time many of the kinship terms use the same generic word for
referring either to male and female. Unless one needs to specify, in a regular speech gender is never specified.
With no need of listing them all again, some of these terms are: dain ‘older brother/sister’; matua
44
‘mother/father in law’; ifa ‘brother/sister in law’; amure ‘aunt/uncle’, etc. In case of need for sex distinction it
is added the words urane ‘man’ or makunrai ‘woman’, so matua could be either mother or father in law, but
then we have matua urane ‘father in law’ and matua makunrai ‘mother in law’.
Some Austronesian languages have obligatory possessive marking for kinship terms; this is not the case for
Bugis where it is just possible to name any kinship word without the need of adding the possessive. Since
kinship terms are nouns, as any other noun may take the genitive suffix.
(261) ambo’‐ku
father‐1sgGEN
‘My father’
So, as said, it is possible to just say ambo ‘father’ when referring to any father, or ambo’ku ‘my father’ when
speaking of a specific father.
Bugis has specific non analyzable words for defining kinship in which other languages, such as English, require
more than one word. For example, we find the following nuclear terms: daing ‘older brother/sister’; anri
‘younger brother/sister’; matua ‘mother/father in law’; ifa ‘brother/sister in law’.
Some other forms are compounds, reduplications or lexicalized forms. There is the compound form anatanga
‘middle son/daugther’ where ana is son/daughter and tanga middle. From ana, again, we have the
reduplicated form anana ‘children’, literally son‐son or daughter‐daugther or probably since there’s no gender
distinction daughter‐son or vice versa.
An exception to the fact of using the same word for both gender are the lexicalized words for brother
fororane made up of foro + rane (urane) ‘man’, and sister para´kunrai made up of para´ + kunrai (makunrai)
‘woman’. Then, as a lexicalized form there is amforo ‘step brother/sister’, where foro is the same root as in
brother and there is no current meaning for am.
There are some compounds such as the formation of stepfather/stepmother with the word fura plus the word
mother or father, where fura means ‘already’, so for example, fura indo’ ‘stepmother’ literally means ‘already
mother’.
According to Blust (2013, p. 352), Proto Malayo Polinesian show traces of a possible matrilineal society, these
traces could still be found in the following: nene ‘grandmother’, nene’ ‘granparents’, nene’ utu ‘great
grandparents’. In some languages, such as in Catalan, the word for parents is ‘pares’ (lit. fathers) and that
includes the mother and the father. In this case, in Bugis we have that the including word for both, male and
female derives from the female word. In Bugis, the word for parents is indoambo, literally motherfather,
perhaps the fact of placing first the word for mother aslo tells us something about this possible matrilineal
past.
45
Bugis uses the same word for nephew/niece and cousin’s son/daughter which is anure. Then for cousin’s
children uses ana’na sapisang, which literally means the ‘children of the cousin’. So this last term is a
descriptive one since there’s not a specific form for it, instead of being a lexicalized one or a nuclear form.
The following is a kinship matrix in order to well‐establish the kinship relationship throughout the vocabulary.
Figure 12. Kinship matrix for Bugis
Gender
Relative age
♂ ♀ +older
Ambo’ –father
+
+
Daing ‐Older
sibling
Anri –younger
sibling
Anatanga ‐Middle
sibling
Nene ‐
grandparents
Nene’ utu ‐
greatgrandparents
Amure –
uncle/aunt
Sapsiang ‐cousin
Blood relative.
kindred
+2
+
+
+
+
+
+
Para’kunrai ‐sister
+
+
+
+1
.
0
‐1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+3
+
+
+
+
+
+collateral
+
+
+
Ana –
son/daughter
Matua –
mother/father in
law
Ifa –brother/sister
in law
Fura ambo ‐
stepfather
Fura indo ‐
stepmother
Amforo –
stepbrother/sister
Anure –cousin
son/daughter
Laato ‐
grandfather
Nene ‐
grandmother
Indoambo ‐
parents
Anure –
nephew/niece
+younger
+
Indo’ ‐mother
Fororane ‐brother
+
‐
generation
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
46
4.1. Historical kinship
From Blust (2013) data and Wikipedia (2013) it comes out the following figure:
Figure 13. Kinship in Proto‐Austronesian, Proto‐Malayo Polynesian, Proto‐Oceanic , Proto‐Polynesian and Bugis.
Kinship
person
mother
father
child
man, male
Proto
Austronesian
*Cau
*t‐ina
*t‐ama
*aNak
*ma‐Ruqanay
woman,
female
*bahi
Proto Malayo
Polynesian
*tau
*t‐ina
*t‐ama
*anak
*laki, *ma‐
Ruqanay
*bahi
Proto Oceanic
*taumataq
*tina
*tama
*natu
*nwaRuqane
Proto
Polynesian
*tangata
*tinana
*tamana
*tama
*taqane
Bugis
ma’, tau
indo’
ambo’
ana ana
urane
*pine, *papine
*fafine
makunrai
Taking a look at the above it is easy to notice that Bugis shows obvious similarity with Proto‐Austronesian and
Proto‐Malayo Polynesian, although that this fact is clear only in the terms for person and child. There might
be some similarity as well in the term for father *t‐ama and ambo’. The most striking characteristic of the
above figure is the similarity of the word in Proto‐Austronesian and Proto‐Malayo Polynesian *ma‐Ruganay
and the Bugis one makunrai, similarity in form but not in meaning, as the proto form means man and the
Bugis one means woman. At the same time, in Proto‐Malayo‐Polynesian there is an alternate form for man
which is *laki, and in Bugis we find lakkai which means husband, so in this last case it could be a semantic
specialization of the word *laki that went from the broader meaning of ‘man’ to the narrower meaning in
Bugis of ‘husband’.
Proto‐Malayo‐Polynesian had four sibling terms:
1) *kaka ‘older same sex sibling’,
2) *huaji ‘younger same sex sibling’,
3) *ñaRa ‘brother of a woman’,
4) *betaw ‘sister of a man’
As already mentioned, Bugis has lost the sex distinction, however it does preserves specific terms to refer to
older or younger siblings, daing ‘older’ and anri ‘younger’.
47
5.
Appendix
5.1. Transcription text
The following is a two minute story transcribed, glossed and with and approximate translation from Bugis into
English.
The text has the following format with different colors, so it makes it easier to identify each part:
Phonetics
Phonology
Gloss
Translation
1.ˈlok:a maceˈɾita waʔˈtuku ˈbecu gampoˈŋe waʔˈtuku ˈbecu ɾiˈolo uˈfuʒi jokaˌnaŋe kusaloˈe
ló.=k:a ma‐.ce.ɾí.ta uaʔ.tú.ku bé.cu kam.po.ŋ‐é aʔ.tú.ku bé.cu ɾi.ó.lo u.fú.ʒ=i jo.ka ná.ŋe kusalo‐e
will=1sgABS VBZ‐tell story kid small village‐DEF kid small long ago like=I go swim river‐DEF
I will tell a story of when I was a small kid in a village. Long ago when I was a kid I liked to go to swim
2. ˈak:a ˈsalo sidoˈp:e boˈla:ku biˈasaˌka ˈjoʔka ˈcam:e koɾo siˈbawa ˈcume na ˈna:ŋe siˈbawa
á.k:a sá.lo si.dó.p:e bó.la:=k:u bi.á.sa=ˌka jóʔ.ka cú.m:e kó.ɾo si.bá.ua cú.me ná ná:.ŋe si.bá.ua
river‐DEF there’s river near house=1sgABS usually=1sgABS go bath/swim there to with bath
to the river that there’s near my home, I usually go to swim/bath there, to bath and swim with
3. si’loko naˈcaŋga biˈasa toˈmatuˌaku ˈjoʔka koˈɾo saloˈe fanasaŋˈlempo amaˈŋe ˌnap:a
si.lóu=ku na.cáŋ.ga bi.á.sa to.má.tu.a=k:u jóʔ.ka ko.ɾó sa.lo‐é fa.na.saŋ lém.po a.ma.ŋé ná.p:a
friends=1sgGEN banned usually parents=1sgGEN go there river‐DEF because flood could be then
my friends. My parents usually banned to go to the river because there could be flood then
4. ˈmaliko a:ˈmate ˌdegaˈmitako taˈpi bjesa toki ˈjoʔka koˈɾo
Má.li.=ko a:.má.t‐e ˌde.ga mí.ta.=ko ta.pí bi.á.sa=to.ki jóʔ.ka ko.ɾó
flow=2sgABS will die no see=2sgABS but (Bahasa Indonesia) usually=1plABS(slang) go there
you flow away you’ll die, nobody see you but we usually go there
5. naˈmu naʔcaˈni to:matuwat:a taʔtaˈtoŋi ˈjoka na:ŋeko saloˈe kufuˈɾaki
na.mú naʔ.ca.n=í to:.ma.tú.ua.=t:a taʔ.ta tó.ŋi jóʔ.ka na:.ŋe.=ko sa.lo=é ku.fu.ɾá.ki
although banned=1plABS parents=2plABS still we go swim=3plABS river‐DEF after
48
although it was banned by our parents we still go to swim at the river. After
6. ˈnaŋeko saloˈe biˈaseki ˈjoʔka ku buluˈe biˈaseki ˈjoʔka saˈp:a ˈbua ˈʒampu
ná.ŋe.=ko sa.lo‐é bi.á.se=ki jóʔ.ka ku bu.lu‐é bi.á.se=ki jóʔ.ka sa.p:á bá.a ʒám.pu
swim=1plABS river‐DEF usually=1plABS go PREP hill‐DEF usually=1plABS go look for fruit rose apple
swim at the river we usually go to the hill, we usually go to look for rose apples
7. ˈmanre ʒampuˈato ˌjokaˈki ˈmaʔpasajaŋki saloˈe areˈga jokaˈki ˈmago lo koˈɾo kufuraˈki
mán.re ʒám.pu á.to jó.ka=ki máʔ‐.pa.sa.jaŋ.ki sa.lo‐é jo.ka.=kí ˈma‐.gó.lo ko.ɾó ku.fu.ɾa.=kí
eat fruit or go=1sgABS VBZ‐kite PREP river‐DEF go=1plABS VBZ‐ball there to after=1plABS
to eat them or to play with kite in the river. We go to play football there, and after we usually take
8. ˈcume biaˈsatok:i ˈjoʔka ˈmita faˈgolo kus ˈdena ˈjoro saloˈe taˈpi ˈfalen oˈfuʒi ku
cú.me bi.a.sé.to.=k:i jóʔ.ka mí.ta fa.gó.lo ku.s .dé.na jó.ro sa.lo‐é ta.pí fá.len o.fú.ʒ=i ku
bath usually=1plABS go see people ball near that river‐DEF but really like=1sgABS PREP
a bath. We go to see people playing football near that river, but I really like
9. jokaˈki maʔpaˈsaja ku ˌjokaˈki maʔpaˈsaja biˈa:saki meˈbuki paˈsaja joʔkaˈki ˈjolo
jo.ka =kí maʔ‐ pa sá.ja ku jó.ka.=kí maʔ‐.pa.sá.ja bi.á.se.=ki me.bú.=ki pa.sá.ja joʔ.ka.=kí jó.lo
go VBZ‐kite PREP go=1plABS VBZ‐kite usually=1plABS make=1plABS kite go=1plABS first
to go us to play with kite and we go to play kite. We usually make the kite so we go first
10. saˈp:a aˈwo: naˈp:a jor ˈt: awoˈe ˈnap:a joʔka toˈki maˌl:i kartaˈsa sibaˈwan:a
sa.p:á a.uó: na.p:á jo.ráˈ.t: au.oé na.p:á jóʔ.ka to.=kí má‐.l:i kar.ta.sá si.ba.úa=n:a
looking for bamboo then cut=1plABS bamboo then go also=1plABS VBZ‐buy paper with=rope
to look for bamboo then we cut the bamboo, then we go to buy the paper with a rope
11. naˈp:a iˈɾini meˈbu ierobeˈnaˈŋe pasaˌjaˈŋe ˈnap:a siˈbawani maˈcule ˌsibawaˈlok:u
na.p:á i.ɾí.ni me.bú ie.ró.be na.ŋ‐é pa.sa.jaŋ‐é na.p:á si.ba.úa=ni ma‐.cú.le si.ba.úa ló.=k:u
then we make this rope‐DEF kite‐DEF then with=1plABS ABS‐play with friend=1sgABS
then we make the kite with the rope then I play with my friends
12. ku ˌlapaŋaˈŋe ˌmaʔpaˈsaja biˈasa kuɾaweˈŋe ˈjoro cereˈtaku aʔˈtuku ˈbecu
ku la.pa.ŋa.ŋé maʔ‐.pa.sá.ja bi.á.sa ku.ɾa.ue.ŋ‐é jó.ro ce.re.tá.=k:u aʔ.tú.ku bé.cu
PREP field VBZ‐kite usually afternoon‐DEF that story=1sgABS kid small
in the field with the kite usually in the afternoon. That’s the story of when I was a small kid.
49
5.2.
Glossary
5.2.1. Bugis – Catalan – English
'
'baɲa
Noun. ànec; duck.
'b ɲa
Noun. cobdícia; greed.
ˈ
ˈaːfi
Noun. foc; fire.
Adjective. nou; new.
ˈaɖa
ˈbaɾu
Noun. mot; word.
Noun. pedra; stone.
ˈaɖ
ˈbatu
Noun. norma; norm.
ˈaga1
ˈbeːtːa Adjective. vell; old.
Pronoun. què; what.
Verb. caure; falling down.
ˈaga2
ˈbeʔˈbeʔ
Variant: ˌaga. Pronoun. què; what.
Noun. cabra; goat.
ˈaha
ˈbeʔmbeʔ
Noun. diumenge; Sunday.
Noun. canyella; shin.
ˈaɟa
ˈbiti
no ho facis; don't do it.
Variant: boˈla. Noun. casa; house.
ˈal
ˈbola
Noun. bosc; forest.
Adjective. negre; black.
ˈamaʔ
ˈbolo
Noun. mare; mother.
ˈboɲo
Adjective. podrit; rotten.
ˈamba Verb. pegar; to hit.
ˈboʔˈboʔ
Noun. llibre; book.
ˈam ʔ
Verb. empassar; swallow.
Noun. fruita; fruit.
ˈana
ˈbua
Noun. fill/a; son/daughter.
ˈbulu
Noun. turó; hill.
ˈbu a
Noun. flor; flower.
ˈana ˈana
Variant: ananaˈe. Noun. fills; children.
ˈanri
Noun. germà/na petit; younger sibling.
repetir; repeat.
ˈaɾo
ˈbwas
Noun. pit; chest.
Adverb. d'acord; okay.
ˈas̪
ˈbwaʔna
Noun. nom; name.
Adjective. pocs; few.
ˈas̪u
ˈced̪:e
Variant: ˌas̪u; ˌasu. Noun. gos; dog.
Noun. mico; monkey.
ˈata
ˈceiba
Adjective. esclau; slave.
ˈaʒe
ˈcombi Noun. vagina; vagina.
Noun. peu; foot.
ˈaʔna
ˈcomo Adjective. gras; fat.
Noun. fill; son.
ˈba
ˈcouki
Adverb. sí; yes.
ˈbabi
ˈcum:e Noun. bany; bath.
Noun. porc; pig.
ˈbaɖa
ˈdaj
Adverb. demà; tomorrow.
ˈdaj makunˈrai
ˈbajne Noun. muller; wife.
ˈbale
Noun. peix; fish.
ˈbar
Noun. granger; farmer.
Noun. gat; cat.
Noun. germà/na gran; older sibling.
See main entry: . Noun. germana
gran; older sister.
ˈdaj uˈɾane See main entry: . Noun. germà gran;
older brother.
ˈdega
Pronoun. ningú; nobody.
50
ˈduʔ a Noun. canella.
ˈɟoka
ˈɖaucili
ˈkamːisi
Noun. dijous; Thursday.
Noun. lluna; moon.
Noun. orelles; ears.
Verb. caminar; to walk.
ˈɖawa
Noun. tinta; ink.
ˈkeːta
ˈɖua
Adjective. dos; two.
ˈk fat
hi ha; there is.
ˈkwe
Adverb. aquí; here.
ˈla:to
Noun. avi; grandfather.
ˈlaːso
Noun. penis; penis.
ˈɖua ˈlima
See main entry: . Noun. dues mans; two
hands.
ˈe
See main entry: e.
ˈfalen
realment; really.
ˈfau
Variant: ˌfau. Verb. parlar; speak.
ˈfawno Noun. assassí; murderer.
ˈfeːtu
Adjective. set; seven.
ˈfemo
ˈfili
Adverb. un altre cop; again.
Noun. galta; cheek.
ˈfura ˈamboʔ
ˈfura ˈindoʔ
Noun. pare adoptiu; stepfather.
Noun. mare adoptiva; stepmother.
ˈlampa Adjective. salvatge; wild.
ˈlempo pla; flat.
ˈletːe
Noun. llamp; lightning.
ˈl kː ʔ Noun. esquena; back.
ˈlila
Noun. llengua; tongue.
ˈlima1
Adjective. cinc; five.
ˈlima2
Noun. mà; hand.
ˈlo
Verb. voler; want.
ˈloka
See main entry: . Verb. jo vull; I want.
ˈlutːu
Verb. sortir volant; fly away.
ˈfute
Adjective. blanc; white.
ˈfwole
Verb. venir; to come.
ˈgolo
Noun. pilota; ball.
ˈgora
Noun. crit; scream.
ˈiːa
Pronoun. jo; I.
ˈifa
Noun. cunyat/cunyada; sister/brother in law.
ˈiga
Pronoun. qui; who.
ˈiko
Noun. tu (col·loquial); you sing. (colloquial).
ˈi
Noun. nas; nose.
ˈmeːnu
ˈiɾi1
Pronoun. tu (educat); you sing. (polite).
ˈmega Variant: ˌmega. Adverb. molts; many.
ˈiɾi2
Pronoun. vosaltres (paucal); you pl. (paucal).
ˈmeo
Noun. gat; cat.
ˈiɾiʔ
Noun. nosaltres (paucal); we (paucal).
ˈmita
Verb. mirar; to see.
ˈis̪i1
Noun. dents; teeth.
ˈmoɾewi
ˈis̪i2
Noun. dents; teeth.
ˈiti
Noun. ànec; duck.
ʔ
ˈiʔn̠ɖo ˈjɐɾi
ˈjasa
Noun. dit gros; big finger.
Variant: ˌjasan. Noun. nom; name.
ˈjɐɾi ˈjɐɾi
Noun. dits; fingers.
ˈmaːgai
Pronoun. com; how.
ˈmaːta Noun. ull; eye.
ˈmanre Verb. menjar; to eat.
ˈmanu Noun. pollastre; chicken.
ˈmaʔnu ˈmaʔnu
See main entry: . Noun. ocell;
bird.
Verb. beure; to drink.
Verb. estossegar ; cough.
ˈmufi
ˈna e
See main entry: kaˈra.
Verb. nedar; to swim.
ˈnap:a llavors; then.
ˈoːto
Noun. cotxe; car.
ˈo ko
això és meu; this is mine.
ˈje
Pronoun. aquest; this.
ˈoɾi
Noun. cul; bottom.
ˈjeso
Adverb. avui; today.
ˈoʔko
Noun. mossegada; bite.
ˈjolo
Adverb. davant; in front.
ˈpas
mentre; while.
ˈjoɾo1
Adjective. aquells/es; those.
ˈpopːa Noun. cuixa; lap.
ˈjoɾo2
Pronoun. aquella; that.
ˈpoʔˈpeʔ
Verb. pegar; to hit.
51
ˈpoʔˈpoʔ
Noun. màgia negra; black magic.
ˈtaw ˈfawno See main entry: . assassí; murderer.
ˈpoʔpoʔ
Noun. arbre; tree.
ˈte:gi
ˈpuʔˈpuʔ
Adjective. desgastat; worn.
ˈte:mu Noun. boca; mouth.
Variant: ˌte:gi. Pronoun. on; where.
ˈroti
Noun. pa; bread.
ˈtete
Noun. pit; breast.
ˈɾoki
Verb. escriure; to write.
ˈt l:u
Adjective. tres; three.
ˈɾoki suɾuˈe See main entry: . Verb. ha escrit; he
ˈt l:uˈpːulo
wrote.
ˈɾumpu
ˈsalo
ˈt l:uˈpːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi
Noun. fum; smoke.
ˈtoni
Noun. riu; river.
ˈul
ˈsaptu Noun. dissabte; Saturday.
ˈsaɾo
Noun. front; forehead.
ˈs̪eʔɖi
Adjective. u; one.
ˈtaːsiʔ
Noun. mar; sea.
ˈtabe
Noun. em sap greu; excuse me.
ˈul
ˈtaw
Adjective. trenta-u; thirty one.
Adverb. sempre; always.
1
Noun. mes; month.
2
Noun. lluna; moon.
ˈulu
Noun. cap; head.
ˈunuɾu Noun. edat; age.
ˈtahun Noun. any (indonesi); year (Indonesian).
ˈtai ˈla:so
See main entry: . Adjective. trenta; thirty.
See main entry: . Noun. cardar; fuck.
ˈut:u
Noun. genoll; knee.
ˈwai
Noun. aigua; water.
ˈwin:i
Noun. nit; night.
ˈʒampu
Noun. persona; person.
Noun. poma rosa; rose apple.
ˌ
ˌaga See main entry: ˈaga2.
ˌamːaˈtea
ˌiɾi ˈman
Noun. mort; death.
ˌas̪u See main entry: ˈas̪u.
See main entry: . fillla;
ˌɖuaˈpːulo
Noun. dit del mig; middle finger.
ˌlimaˈpːulo
Adjective. cinquanta; fifty.
ˌmega
See main entry:
silasoˈɾutːa.
See main entry: . Adjective. vint; twenty.
1
See main entry: ˈmega.
ˌsilasoˈɾut:a
See main entry: . Noun. fill; son.
ˌte:gi
ˌfau See main entry: ˈfau.
ˌiɾi ˈman
See main entry: ˈjasa .
ˌjɐɾi ˈta a
daughter.
ˌaʔna uˈɾa:neʔ
Pronoun. vosaltres (tothom); you pl. (all
ˌjasan
ˌasu See main entry: ˈas̪u.
ˌaʔna maʔˈkun̙rai
2
of us).
Pronoun. nosaltres (tots); we (all of us).
ˌtel:u ˈra:tu
See main entry: ˈte:gi.
See main entry: . Adjective. tres-cents;
three hundred.
A - a
aˈ s̪uk:u
See main entry: . el meu gos; my dog.
aˈbjo
Noun. mà dreta; right hand.
aˈɖua
Adjective. vuit; eight.
aˈle:na1
Pronoun. ells (paucal); they (paucal).
aˈle:na2
Noun. ell/a; he/she.
aˈle:na ˈman
Pronoun. ells/elles (inclusiu);
they (all of us).
aˈmuɾe
Noun. oncle/tia; uncle/aunt.
aˈnaʔna saˈpisa
See main entry: . Noun. fills dels
cosins ; cousin's children.
aˈnuɾe1 Noun. neboda; niece.
52
aˈnuɾe2 Noun. fill/a del cosí ; cousin' son/daughter.
amˈporo
aˈnuɾe3 Noun. nebot/da; nephew /niece.
Noun. germà/na adoptat; step sibling.
ananaˈe
aˈɾo:la See main entry: . el seu cor; his/her heart.
See main entry: ˈana ˈana.
anataˈ a
Noun. fill/a mitjà; middle son/daughter.
Noun. la meva neboda; my niece.
aˈs̪u
anar-se'n; to go out.
anuˈɾek:u
aˈs̪um:u
See main entry: . el teu gos (col·loquial);
your dog (colloquial).
as̪eˈɾa
Adjective. nou; nine.
asej
Adverb. dalt; over.
aʔˈs̪o
Noun. dia; day.
See main entry: . el seu gos; his/her dog.
aˈs̪un:a
aˈs̪ut:a See main entry: . el teu gos (educat); your dog
(polite).
aˈwo:
Noun. bambú; bamboo.
Noun. nen; kid.
aʔˈtuku
aʔpaˈɖa:tu
See main entry: . Adjective. quatre-cents;
four hundred.
akuˈro Adverb. allà; there.
Noun. pare; father.
amˈboʔ
B - b
Noun. ratolí; mouse.
baˈlawo
See main entry: . la teva casa
(col·loquial); your house (colloquial).
boˈla:mu
beʔˈcu Adjective. petit; small.
biˈasa
Adverb. sovint; usually.
boˈla
boˈla:k:u1
See main entry: ˈbola.
boˈla:t:a
house.
bosi
boˈla:k:u2
See main entry: . la seva casa; his/her
boˈlan:a
See main entry: . la meva casa; my
house.
See main entry: . la teva casa (educat);
your house (polite).
Noun. pluja; rain.
boʔˈbwaʔ
buˈlu
Noun. estómac; stomach.
Noun. muntanya; mountain.
C - c
celːa
Adjective. vermell; red.
D - d
deˈ
negació; negation.
Ɖ - ɖ
ɖuaˈra:tu
Adjective. dos-cents; two hundred.
E - e
e
Variant: ˈe. Determiner. DEF; DEF.
eɟu
Noun. roba; cloth.
53
Ə ˈlu
Noun. núvols; clouds.
ˈn:
Variant: ˈnː
ˈn:
ˈpulo
ˈnː
ʔˈpa
. Adjective. sis; six.
See main entry: ˈn:
.
Adjective. quatre; four.
See main entry: . Adjective. seixanta;
sixty.
F - f
faˈgolo Noun. jugador de futbol; football player.
foɖoˈɾane
faˈpara Verb. agradar; to like.
fura
faʔˈʒelo
fem
Noun. germà; brother.
Adverb. ja/encara; already.
Noun. dit índex; index finger.
Adverb. següent; next.
G - g
gaˈu
g ˈmː ʔ
Adjective. blau; blue.
guˈɾu
Noun. professor; teacher.
iˈwin:i
Adverb. ahir; yesterday.
iː
ell/a; he/she.
in̠ˈɖoʔ
Noun. mare; mother.
Noun. cabells; hair.
I - i
i
particle de tracte per a les dones; treatment
particle for women.
iˈfak:u Noun. la meva cunyada; my sister in law.
iˈja
Adverb. sí (educat); yes (polite).
iˈjo
Adverb. sí (col·loquial); yes (colloguial).
indoˈambo
Noun. pares; parents.
J - j
jaˈseʔna
sobre; on.
jaˈwana
Adverb. sota; under.
jategi
jɐˈnu
See main entry: kaʔtaw. Variant: kaʔtaw. Noun.
algú; somebody.
joɾaˈnane
Pronoun. quin; which.
ajuda; help.
ɟ
ɟuˈma: Noun. divendres; Friday.
K - k
54
k:e
Pronoun. tu (formal); you (polite).
k raɲɟa
k:o
Variant: ko. tu (col·loquial); you (colloquial).
ki
k:u
Variant: ku. Pronoun. la meva/el meu; my.
ka
jo; I.
kaˈlolo Noun. animal; animal.
kaˈra
Variant: ˈmufi. Verb. plorar; cry.
Noun. cistella; basket.
See main entry: ku. Variant: ku. Adverb. sobre;
into / on.
kiˈaseʔ Adverb. amunt; up.
Adverb. avall; down.
kiawa
ko
See main entry: k:o.
See main entry: ki, k:u. Variant: ki. a sobre / a
ku
kaˈɾeb
Noun. notícies; news.
karˈtasa
Noun. paper; paper.
kuˈɖaɾa
kaɾeˈba na
Noun. notícies ell/a; news him/her.
kufuɾa Adverb. després; after.
kaʔtaw See main entry: jɐˈnu. Variant: jɐˈnu. Noun.
algú; somebody.
dins; into / on.
Adjective. verd; green.
tarda; afternoon.
kuɾaˈwe
Adverb. encara; still.
k mmo
L - l
la
particle de tracte per als homes; treatment
particle for men.
laˈk:aj
Noun. marit; husband.
ladː ʔ Adverb. molt; very.
laganˈrani
Verb. ell llença; he throws.
tot just; just.
lalo
liˈma:m:u
See main entry: . el teu braç; your arm.
liˈmak:u
See main entry: . el meu braç; my arm.
See main entry: . el seu braç; his/her
liˈman:a
arm.
M - m
maˈbaca
Verb. llegir; to read.
maˈcule
Verb. jugen; they play.
maˈfalːa
Adjective. calent; warm.
maˈɟa: Adjective. dolent; bad.
maˈtua maʔˈkun̙rai See main entry: . sogra; mother
in law.
maˈwan
Verb. surar; to float.
maˈʒame
Verb. fer; do.
maˈkanʒa
Adjective. bo; good.
macoloˈi
Verb. es fon; it melts.
maˈlopːo
Adjective. gran; big.
mageˈnitu
Noun. casa; house.
maˈn:asu
Verb. cuinar; to cook.
magolo
Verb. jugar a futbol; play football.
maˈnaɾi
Noun. ballen; they dance.
makeloˈni
Verb. ell canta; he sings.
maˈɾidi
Adjective. groc; yellow.
man ko
nosaltres (col·olquial); we (colloquial).
man
nosaltres (formal); we (polite).
maˈɾoki suɾuˈe
See main entry: . Verb. està
escrivint; is writing.
maˈtinro
Verb. dormir; to sleep.
ki
matamaˈi
Verb. entrar (la seva); enter (his).
matonoˈwi
Verb. coure; bake.
maˈtoa Adverb. vell; old.
maʔ
maˈtua Noun. sogre/a ; mother/father in law.
maʔˈkun̙rai
Noun. dona; woman.
maʔˈlumu
Noun. pollastre; chicken.
maʔbiˈcaɾa
Verb. parlar; to speak.
maˈtua uˈɾa:neʔ
father in law.
See main entry: . Noun. sogre;
Noun. persona; person.
55
maʔk ˈce
Adjective. fred; cold.
monroˈe
m g ˈl:o:
Adjective. bo; good.
mufi
m t :ʔ s̪o
See main entry: . Noun. sol; sun.
munˈri Adverb. darrere; behind.
miˈki
Verb. ell viu; he lives.
encara; still.
Noun. mossegada; bite.
N - n
nafaˈɖiɾika
Verb. irrita; irritates.
neˈne2
nafoɾoˈɲ
Noun. cuina; kitchen.
neˈne uʔtu
nagoˈɾai
neˈne1
Noun. àvia; grandmother.
See main entry: . Noun. besavis; great
grandparents.
Verb. ella ha cridat; she screamed.
Noun. avis; granparents.
ˈka
hi ha; there is.
P - p
paˌtaˈpːulo
paraʔkunˈraj
pas
Adjective. quaranta; forty.
pasaja Noun. estel; kite.
Noun. germana; sister.
mentre/sobtadament; while/suddenly.
R - r
raˈbaː
Noun. dimecres; Wednesday.
riá
Adverb. enllà; away.
ɾ
ɾiˈolo
fa temps; long ago.
S - s
56
s̪aˈlaːs̪a
Noun. dimarts; Tuesday.
saˈneːi
Noun. dilluns; Monday.
saˈ aɾi Adverb. despús-demà; the day after tomorrow.
sapˈseku
saʔˈpisa
Noun. cosins; cousins.
s̪eˈpːulo
Adjective. deu; ten.
s̪eˈpːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi
See main entry: . Adjective. onze; eleven.
s ˈɾaːtu
Adjective. cent; one hundred.
siˈbaːwa
Adposition. amb; with.
siˈbawa
Preposition. amb; with.
sidoˈp:e
a prop; near.
sikoˈla Adjective. marró; brown.
silaˈsuɾ
Noun. germà (terme no marcat, genèric); sibling.
silasoˈɾutːa
Variant: ˌsilasoˈɾut:a. Noun. germans, família ; siblings, family.
siwali
Adverb. costat; beside.
T - t
taben:aˈi
tanˈru
See main entry: . Verb. cau; it falls.
Noun. banya; horn.
taʔˈɾasini
Verb. ells estornuden; they sneeze.
taʔˈwe Noun. gent; people.
Noun. em sap greu; sorry.
taʔdamˈpoːla
Noun. telèfon; telephone.
teleˈfon
t ˈtːeʔ Verb. pegar; to hit.
t ʔˈteʔ Noun. hora; hour.
twˈa
Noun. suc de coco; coconut juice.
U - u
uˈlːunːa
See main entry: . el seu cap; his/her head.
uˈlukːu
See main entry: . el meu cap; my head.
uˈpːanːa
Pronoun. quan; when.
uˈɾaːneʔ
Noun. home; man.
uleˈhu de; from.
57
W - w
Noun. poble; village.
waˈnua
w nni Noun. nit; night.
5.2.2. English – Bugis
A - a
after
Adverb. kufuɾa
afternoon
again
kuɾaˈwe
Adverb. ˈfemo
age
Noun. ˈunuɾu
already Adverb. fura
always
animal
Noun. kaˈlolo
away
Adverb. riá
blue
Adjective. gaˈu
book
Noun. ˈboʔˈboʔ
Adverb. ˈtoni
B - b
back
Noun. ˈl
kː ʔ
bad
Adjective. maˈɟa:
bake
Verb. matonoˈwi
ball
Noun. ˈgolo
basket
Noun. k
raɲɟa
bath
Noun. ˈcum:e
behind Adverb. munˈri
Adverb. siwali
Adjective. maˈlopːo
big finger
ˈjɐɾi
bird
Noun. aˈwo:
bamboo
beside
big
bite
Noun. ˈiʔn̠ɖo
bottom Noun. ˈoɾi
Noun. ˈmaʔnu
bread
ˈmaʔnu
Noun. ˈroti
breast
Noun. ˈoʔko
Noun. ˈtete
brother Noun. foɖoˈɾane
Noun. miˈki
black
brown
Adjective. ˈbolo
black magic
Adjective. sikoˈla
Noun. ˈpoʔˈpoʔ
C - c
car
Noun. ˈoːto
cloth
Noun. eɟu
cat
Noun. ˈcouki
clouds
Noun.
cousin's children
ˈlu
Noun. aˈnaʔna
Noun. ˈmeo
coconut juice Noun. twˈa
cheek
Noun. ˈfili
cold
Adjective. maʔk
chest
Noun. ˈaɾo
cough
Verb. ˈmoɾewi
Noun. ˈmanu
chicken
Noun. maʔˈlumu
children
ˈana
ˈce
cousin' son/daughter
Noun. aˈnuɾe
saˈpisa
cousins
Noun. saʔˈpisa
cry
Verb. kaˈra
Noun. ˈana
58
D - d
daughter
ˌaʔna
DEF
Determiner. e
down
Adverb. kiawa
maʔˈkun̙rai
do
Verb. maˈʒame
duck
Noun. 'baɲa
day
Noun. aʔˈs̪o
dog
death
Noun. ˌamːaˈtea
Noun. ˈas̪u
don't do it
Noun. ˈiti
ˈaɟa
E - e
ears
Noun. ˈɖaucili
eight
Adjective. aˈɖua
eleven
Adjective. s̪eˈpːulo
ˈs̪eʔɖi
enter (his)
eye
Noun. ˈmaːta
Verb. matamaˈ
i
excuse me
Noun. ˈtabe
F - f
falling down
Verb. ˈbeʔˈbeʔ
fish
Noun. ˈbale
forty
Adjective. paˌtaˈpːulo
Adjective.
farmer
Noun. ˈbar
five
four
fat
Adjective. ˈcomo
Adjective. ˈlima
flat
ˈlempo
four hundred
father
Noun. amˈboʔ
flower
Noun. ˈbu
father in law
Noun. maˈtua
foot
few
Adjective. ˈced̪:e
football player
fifty
Adjective. ˌlimaˈpːulo
fire
Noun. ˈaːfi
forehead
forest
ɖa:tu
Friday
Noun. ɟuˈma:
from
uleˈhu
Noun. faˈgolo
fruit
Noun. ˈbua
Noun. ˈsaɾo
fuck
Noun. ˈtai
green
Adjective. kuˈɖaɾa
Noun. ˈaʒe
uˈɾa:neʔ
fingers Noun. ˈjɐɾi ˈjɐɾi
Adjective. aʔpaˈ
a
Verb. ˈlutːu
fly away
ʔˈpa
ˈla:so
Noun. ˈal
G - g
goat
Noun. ˈbeʔmbeʔ
granparents
good
Adjective. maˈkanʒa
great grandparents
Adjective. m
grandfather
g ˈl:o:
Noun. neˈne
Noun. ˈla:to
grandmother Noun. neˈne
Noun. neˈne
uʔtu
greed
Noun. 'b
ɲa
H - h
59
ˈmː ʔ
hair
Noun. g
hand
Noun. ˈlima
Verb. monroˈe
he lives
he sings
Verb. makeloˈ
ni
he throws
Verb. laganˈra
ni
Verb. ˈɾoki
he wrote
suɾuˈe
he/she Noun. aˈle:na
his/her house
boˈlan:a
iː
head
Noun. ˈulu
horn
Noun. tanˈru
help
joɾaˈnane
hour
Noun. t
here
Adverb. ˈkwe
house
Noun. ˈbola
hill
Noun. ˈbulu
ʔˈteʔ
Noun. mageˈnitu
Pronoun. ˈmaːgai
his/her arm
liˈman:a
how
his/her dog
aˈs̪un:a
husband
Noun. laˈk:aj
is writing
Verb. maˈɾoki
his/her head uˈlːunːa
his/her heart aˈɾo:la
I - i
I
I want
Pronoun. ˈiːa
ink
ka
into / on
Verb. ˈloka
in front Adverb. ˈjolo
index finger
Noun. ˈɖawa
suɾuˈe
Adverb. ki
ku
it falls
irritates
Verb. taben:aˈi
it melts Verb. macoloˈi
Verb. nafaˈɖiɾi
Noun. faʔˈʒelo
ka
J - j
just
lalo
K - k
kid
Noun. aʔˈtuku
kitchen Noun. nafoɾoˈɲ
kite
Noun. pasaja
knee
Noun. ˈut:u
L - l
lap
Noun. ˈpopːa
Noun. ˈletːe
lightning
long ago
ɾiˈolo
M - m
man
Noun. uˈɾaːneʔ
many
Adverb. ˈmega
middle finger
ˈta a
middle son/daughter
Noun. ˌjɐɾi
Noun. anataˈ
Monday
a
Noun. saˈneːi
60
Noun. ˈceiba
monkey
month
Noun. ˈul
moon
Noun. ˈkeːta
Noun. ˈul
mother Noun. ˈamaʔ
Noun. in̠ˈɖoʔ
mother/father in law
mountain
Noun. maˈtua
my head
uˈlukːu
Noun. buˈlu
my house
boˈla:k:u
mouse
Noun. baˈlawo
mouth
Noun. ˈte:mu
ˈtaw ˈfawno
maˈtua
maʔˈkun̙rai
my
my niece
Noun. anuˈɾek:
Noun. ˈfawno
murderer
mother in law
my dog aˈ s̪uk:u
u
my sister in law
Noun. iˈfak:u
Pronoun. k:u
liˈmak:u
my arm
N - n
name
Noun. ˈas̪
Noun. ˈjasa
near
Noun. kaˈɾeb
Noun. aˈnuɾe
Noun. ˈwin:i
Noun. w
Noun. kaɾeˈba
nine
nni
Adjective. as̪eˈɾa
na
nobody Pronoun. ˈdega
next
Adverb. fem
norm
Noun. ˈaɖ
niece
Noun. aˈnuɾe
nose
Noun. ˈi
deˈ
nephew /niece
night
news him/her
sidoˈp:e
negation
new
news
Adjective. ˈbaɾu
ʔ
O - o
okay
Adverb. ˈbwaʔna
older sibling
old
Adjective. ˈbeːtːa
Noun. ˈdaj
older sister
Noun. ˈdaj
Adverb. maˈtoa
one hundred
Adjective. s
tu
makunˈrai
older brother Noun. ˈdaj
on
jaˈseʔna
uˈɾane
one
Adjective. ˈs̪eʔɖi
ˈɾaː
over
Adverb. asej
pig
Noun. ˈbabi
P - p
paper
Noun. karˈtasa
parents
penis
Noun. ˈlaːso
people Noun. taʔˈwe
Noun. indoˈam
bo
play football
Verb. magolo
person Noun. ˈtaw
Noun. maʔ
R - r
rain
Noun. bosi
really
ˈfalen
red
Adjective. celːa
61
repeat
ˈbwas
right hand
river
Noun. aˈbjo
Noun. ˈsalo
rose apple
rotten
Adjective. ˈboɲo
Noun. ˈʒampu
S - s
Noun. ˈsaptu
Saturday
scream Noun. ˈgora
six
Adjective.
ˈn:
sixty
Adjective.
ˈn:
stepfather
Noun. ˈtaːsiʔ
slave
seven
Adjective. ˈfeːtu
Adjective. ˈata
small
Adjective. beʔˈcu
smoke
Noun. ˈɾumpu
she screamed
Verb. nagoˈɾai
shin
Noun. ˈbiti
son
still
Noun. silasoˈɾu
Noun. boʔˈbwa
sister/brother in law
Noun. ˈifa
sorry
Noun. taʔdamˈpoːla
speak
Verb. ˈfau
step sibling
ʔ
uˈɾa:neʔ
Noun. ˈana
Noun. paraʔkunˈraj
mmo
stomach
son/daughter
tːa
Adverb. k
mufi
Noun. ˈaʔna
Noun. ˌaʔna
Noun. ˈfura
ˈindoʔ
Noun. jɐˈnu
somebody
siblings, family
sister
stepmother
Noun. kaʔtaw
sibling Noun. silaˈsuɾ
ˈamboʔ
ˈpulo
sea
Noun. ˈfura
stone
Noun. ˈbatu
sun
Noun. m
t :ʔ s̪o
Sunday Noun. ˈaha
swallow
Verb. ˈam
ʔ
Thursday
Noun. ˈkamːisi
to come
Verb. ˈfwole
Noun. amˈporo
T - t
teacher Noun. guˈɾu
teeth
they (paucal)
Noun. ˈis̪i
Pronoun. aˈle:n
Noun. ˈis̪i
a
Noun. teleˈfon
telephone
to cook Verb. maˈn:asu
they dance
Noun. maˈnaɾi
ten
Adjective. s̪eˈpːulo
they play
Verb. maˈcule
that
Pronoun. ˈjoɾo
they sneeze
Verb. taʔˈɾasini
thirty
the day after tomorrow
Adverb. saˈ
then
there
aɾi
Adjective. ˈt
this
Pronoun. ˈje
this is mine
they (all of us)
Pronoun. aˈle:n
a ˈman
l:uˈ
to eat
ˈo ko
those
Adjective. ˈjoɾo
three
Adjective. ˈt
l:u
Verb. ˈmanre
to float Verb. maˈwan
to go out
to hit
aˈs̪u
Verb. ˈamba
Verb. ˈpoʔˈpeʔ
pːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi
Adverb. akuˈro
ˈka
l:uˈpːulo
thirty one
ˈnap:a
there is ˈk fat
Adjective. ˈt
Verb. ˈmeːnu
to drink
Verb. t
to like
ˈtːeʔ
Verb. faˈpara
to read Verb. maˈbaca
to see
to sleep
Verb. ˈmita
Verb. maˈtinro
three hundred
ˈra:tu
Adjective. ˌtel:u
62
to speak
Verb. maʔbiˈca
tongue Noun. ˈlila
two
treatment particle for men
two hands
ɾa
e
treatment particle for
to walk Verb. ˈɟoka
today
Adverb. ˈjeso
tomorrow
tree
twenty
Adjective. ɖuaˈr
Noun. ˈpoʔpoʔ
a:tu
Noun. s̪aˈlaːs̪a
Tuesday
Adverb. ˈbaɖa
Noun. ˈɖua
two hundred
i
women
Verb. ˈɾoki
to write
ˈlima
la
Verb. ˈna
to swim
Adjective. ˈɖua
Adjective. ˌɖuaˈpːulo
U - u
uncle/aunt
under
Noun. aˈmuɾe
Adverb. jaˈwana
up
Adverb. kiˈaseʔ
usually Adverb. biˈasa
V - v
vagina
Noun. ˈcombi
Adverb. ladː
ʔ
village
Noun. waˈnua
who
Pronoun. ˈiga
wife
Pronoun. ˈaga
Noun. ˈbajne
wild
Adjective. ˈlampa
when
Pronoun. uˈpːanːa
with
Adposition. siˈbaːwa
where
Pronoun. ˈte:gi
which
Pronoun. jategi
woman Noun. maʔˈkun̙rai
while
ˈpas
word
Noun. ˈaɖa
worn
Adjective. ˈpuʔˈpuʔ
very
W - w
want
Verb. ˈlo
Wednesday
warm
Adjective. maˈfalːa
what
water
Noun. ˈwai
we (all of us) Pronoun. ˌiɾi
ˈman
we (colloquial)
man ko
we (paucal)
Noun. ˈiɾiʔ
we (polite)
man
ki
Noun. raˈbaː
Pronoun. ˈaga
while/suddenly
white
Preposition. siˈbawa
pas
Adjective. ˈfute
Y - y
63
year (Indonesian)
Noun. ˈtahun
yellow
Adjective. maˈɾidi
yes
Adverb. ˈba
yes (colloguial)
Adverb. iˈjo
yes (polite)
Adverb. iˈja
yesterday
Adverb. iˈwin:i
you (colloquial)
you (polite)
k:o
Pronoun. k:e
you pl. (all of us)
Pronoun. ˌiɾi
you pl. (paucal)
Pronoun. ˈiɾi
Noun. ˈiko
you sing. (colloquial)
you sing. (polite)
Pronoun. ˈiɾi
younger sibling
Noun. ˈanri
your arm
ˈman
liˈma:m:u
your dog (colloquial) aˈs̪um:u
your dog (polite)
aˈs̪ut:a
your house (colloquial)
your house (polite)
boˈla:mu
boˈla:t:a
5.2.3. Catalan – Bugis
A - a
a prop
sidoˈp:e
a sobre / a dins
amb
ku
Verb. faˈpara
agradar
amunt
Adposition. siˈbaːwa
aquest Pronoun. ˈje
Preposition. siˈbawa
aquí
Adverb. ˈkwe
Adverb. kiˈaseʔ
arbre
Noun. ˈpoʔpoʔ
ahir
Adverb. iˈwin:i
anar-se'n
aigua
Noun. ˈwai
ànec
això és meu
ˈo ko
aˈs̪u
Noun. ˈiti
avall
Adverb. kiawa
Noun. kaˈlolo
avi
Noun. ˈla:to
àvia
Noun. neˈne
avis
Noun. neˈne
avui
Adverb. ˈjeso
joɾaˈnane
animal
algú
Noun. jɐˈnu
any (indonesi)
Noun. ˈtahun
Noun. kaʔtaw
Adverb. akuˈro
ˈtaw ˈfawno
Noun. 'baɲa
ajuda
allà
assassí Noun. ˈfawno
aquella Pronoun. ˈjoɾo
aquells/es
Adjective. ˈjoɾo
B - b
64
ballen
Noun. maˈnaɾi
bambú Noun. aˈwo:
besavis Noun. neˈne uʔtu
beure
Verb. ˈmeːnu
bo
Adjective. maˈkanʒa
Adjective. m
g ˈl:o:
bany
Noun. ˈcum:e
blanc
Adjective. ˈfute
boca
Noun. ˈte:mu
banya
Noun. tanˈru
blau
Adjective. gaˈu
bosc
Noun. ˈal
cotxe
Noun. ˈoːto
coure
Verb. matonoˈwi
crit
Noun. ˈgora
cuina
Noun. nafoɾoˈɲ
cuinar
Verb. maˈn:asu
cuixa
Noun. ˈpopːa
cul
Noun. ˈoɾi
C - c
cabells Noun. g ˈmː ʔ
caure
Verb. ˈbeʔˈbeʔ
cabra
Noun. ˈbeʔmbeʔ
cent
Adjective. s
calent
Adjective. maˈfalːa
cinc
Adjective. ˈlima
Verb. ˈɟoka
caminar
cinquanta
Adjective. ˌlimaˈ
canella Noun. ˈduʔ a
Noun. ˈbiti
canyella
ˈɾaːtu
pːulo
cap
Noun. ˈulu
cardar
Noun. ˈtai
casa
Noun. ˈbola
com
Pronoun. ˈmaːgai
Noun. mageˈnitu
cosins
Noun. saʔˈpisa
Verb. taben:aˈi
costat
Adverb. siwali
cau
cistella Noun. k raɲɟa
ˈla:so
Noun. 'b
cobdícia
ɲa
cunyat/cunyada
Noun. ˈifa
D - d
d'acord Adverb. ˈbwaʔna
dalt
despús-demà
dit índex
Adverb. saˈ
Adverb. asej
aɾi
dits
Noun. faʔˈʒelo
Noun. ˈjɐɾi
ˈjɐɾi
darrere Adverb. munˈri
deu
Adjective. s̪eˈpːulo
diumenge
davant Adverb. ˈjolo
Noun. ˈaha
dia
Noun. aʔˈs̪o
divendres
Noun. ˈkamːisi
Noun. ɟuˈma:
dolent
Adjective. maˈɟa:
dona
Noun. maʔˈkun̙rai
de
uleˈhu
dijous
DEF
Determiner. e
dilluns Noun. saˈneːi
demà
Adverb. ˈbaɖa
dimarts
Noun. s̪aˈlaːs̪a
dormir Verb. maˈtinro
dents
Noun. ˈis̪i
dimecres
Noun. raˈbaː
dos
dissabte
Noun. ˈsaptu
dos-cents
dit del mig
Noun. ˌjɐɾi
Noun. ˈis̪i
desgastat
Adjective. ˈpuʔˈp
uʔ
després
ˈta a
dit gros
Adverb. kufuɾa
ˈjɐɾi
Adjective. ˈɖua
Adjective. ɖuaˈr
a:tu
Noun. ˈiʔn̠ɖo
dues mans
ˈlima
Noun. ˈɖua
E - e
edat
Noun. ˈunuɾu
el meu braç
liˈmak:u
el meu cap
uˈlukːu
65
entrar (la seva)
el meu gos
aˈ s̪uk:u
el seu braç
liˈman:a
el seu cap
uˈlːunːa
ella ha cridat Verb. nagoˈɾai
el seu cor
aˈɾo:la
ells (paucal)
el seu gos
aˈs̪un:a
el teu braç
liˈma:m:u
ell/a
Verb. matamaˈ
iː
Pronoun. aˈle:n
a
ells estornuden
el teu gos (col·loquial)
Verb. taʔˈɾasini
aˈs̪um:u
i
es fon
Verb. macoloˈi
esclau
Adjective. ˈata
escriure
Verb. ˈɾoki
esquena
Noun. ˈl
suɾuˈe
Pronoun. aˈle:n
aˈs̪ut:a
a ˈman
ell canta
Verb. makeloˈ
em sap greu
Verb. ˈam
empassar
ell llença
Verb. laganˈra
Noun. ˈtabe
estel
encara
Adverb. k
ʔ
Noun. pasaja
estómac
Noun. boʔˈbwa
Noun. taʔdamˈpoːla
ni
kː ʔ
està escrivint Verb. maˈɾoki
ells/elles (inclusiu)
el teu gos (educat)
ʔ
estossegar
Verb. ˈmoɾewi
mmo
mufi
ni
ell viu
Noun. aˈle:na
enllà
Verb. monroˈe
Adverb. riá
F - f
ɾiˈolo
fa temps
fillla
ˌaʔna maʔˈkun̙rai
fred
Adjective. maʔk
Noun. ˈana
front
Noun. ˈsaɾo
fruita
Noun. ˈbua
fum
Noun. ˈɾumpu
fer
Verb. maˈʒame
fills
fill
Noun. ˈaʔna
fills dels cosins
Noun. ˌaʔna
fill/a
uˈɾa:neʔ
Noun. aˈnaʔna
Noun. ˈana
saˈpisa
fill/a del cosí Noun. aˈnuɾe
fill/a mitjà
Noun. anataˈ
ˈana
ˈce
a
flor
Noun. ˈbu
foc
Noun. ˈaːfi
a
G - g
galta
Noun. ˈfili
gat
Noun. ˈcouki
germà (terme no marcat,
Noun. ˈut:u
gent
Noun. taʔˈwe
germà
Noun. foɖoˈɾane
Noun. ˈanri
genèric)
Noun. ˈmeo
genoll
germà/na petit
Noun. silaˈsuɾ
germana
Noun. paraʔku
germà gran
Noun. ˈdaj
uˈɾane
germà/na adoptat
Noun. amˈporo
nˈraj
germana gran
Noun. ˈdaj
makunˈrai
germà/na gran
Noun. ˈdaj
66
germans, família
Noun. silasoˈɾu
tːa
gos
Noun. ˈas̪u
gras
Adjective. ˈcomo
gran
Adjective. maˈlopːo
groc
Adjective. maˈɾidi
home
Noun. uˈɾaːneʔ
hora
Noun. t
Noun. ˈbar
granger
H - h
Verb. ˈɾoki
ha escrit
hi ha
ˈk fat
ˈka
suɾuˈe
ʔˈteʔ
I - i
irrita
Verb. nafaˈɖiɾika
J - j
ja/encara
jo
Adverb. fura
Pronoun. ˈiːa
jo vull
Verb. ˈloka
jugar a futbol
Verb. magolo
jugador de futbol
ka
jugen
Verb. maˈcule
llamp
Noun. ˈletːe
Pronoun. k:u
llavors
ˈnap:a
boˈlan:a
llegir
Verb. maˈbaca
Noun. faˈgolo
L - l
la meva casa boˈla:k:u
la meva/el meu
la meva cunyada
Noun. iˈfak:u
la meva neboda
la seva casa
la teva casa (col·loquial)
Noun. anuˈɾek:
u
boˈla:mu
la teva casa (educat)
boˈla:t:a
llengua Noun. ˈlila
llibre
Noun. ˈboʔˈboʔ
lluna
Noun. ˈkeːta
Noun. ˈul
M - m
mà
Noun. ˈlima
mà dreta
Noun. aˈbjo
màgia negra
Noun. ˈpoʔˈpoʔ
mentre/sobtadament
mare adoptiva
Noun. ˈfura
pas
ˈindoʔ
mes
Noun. ˈul
mar
Noun. ˈtaːsiʔ
marit
Noun. laˈk:aj
mico
Noun. ˈceiba
mare
Noun. ˈamaʔ
marró
Adjective. sikoˈla
mirar
menjar Verb. ˈmanre
Verb. ˈmita
molt
Adverb. ladː
mentre ˈpas
molts
Adverb. ˈmega
Noun. in̠ˈɖoʔ
ʔ
67
mort
Noun. ˌamːaˈtea
mossegada
Noun. ˈoʔko
Noun. miˈki
mot
Noun. ˈaɖa
muller
Noun. ˈbajne
Noun. buˈlu
muntanya
N - n
nas
Noun. ˈi
ʔ
no ho facis
neboda Noun. aˈnuɾe
nebot/da
nedar
negació
nom
e
norma
Noun. ˈas̪
ˈman
Noun. ˈaɖ
negre
Adjective. ˈbolo
nen
Noun. aʔˈtuku
ningú
Pronoun. ˈdega
nit
Noun. ˈwin:i
notícies ell/a Noun. kaɾeˈba
na
man ko
nou
nosaltres (formal)
man
Adjective. ˈbaɾu
Adjective. as̪eˈɾa
ki
nosaltres (paucal)
ˈlu
núvols
Noun.
orelles
Noun. ˈɖaucili
pla
ˈlempo
Noun. ˈiɾiʔ
nni
Pronoun. ˌiɾi
Noun. kaˈɾeb
notícies
nosaltres (col·olquial)
deˈ
Noun. w
nosaltres (tots)
Noun. ˈjasa
Noun. aˈnuɾe
Verb. ˈna
ˈaɟa
O - o
ocell
Noun. ˈmaʔnu
on
Noun. aˈmuɾe
oncle/tia
ˈmaʔnu
onze
Pronoun. ˈte:gi
Adjective. s̪eˈpːulo
ˈs̪eʔɖi
P - p
pa
Noun. ˈroti
paper
Noun. karˈtasa
Verb. ˈpoʔˈpeʔ
plorar
Verb. kaˈra
Noun. amˈboʔ
Verb. t
pluja
Noun. bosi
pare
pegar
Verb. ˈamba
ˈtːeʔ
peix
Noun. ˈbale
poble
Noun. waˈnua
ˈamboʔ
penis
Noun. ˈlaːso
pocs
Adjective. ˈced̪:e
pares
Noun. indoˈambo
persona
podrit
parlar
Verb. ˈfau
Adjective. ˈboɲo
pare adoptiu Noun. ˈfura
Noun. maʔ
Verb. maʔbiˈcaɾa
particle de tracte per a les
dones
i
particle de tracte per als
homes
pedra
Noun. ˈbatu
Noun. ˈtaw
la
Noun. ˈmanu
pollastre
petit
Adjective. beʔˈcu
peu
Noun. ˈaʒe
poma rosa
pilota
Noun. ˈgolo
porc
pit
Noun. ˈaɾo
professor
Noun. ˈtete
Noun. maʔˈlumu
Noun. ˈʒampu
Noun. ˈbabi
Noun. guˈɾu
68
Q - q
quan
Pronoun. uˈpːanːa
quatre-cents
Adjective. aʔpaˈ
quaranta
ɖa:tu
Adjective. paˌtaˈ
pːulo
quatre
què
Adjective.
ʔˈpa
qui
Pronoun. ˈiga
quin
Pronoun. jategi
roba
Noun. eɟu
sogre
Noun. maˈtua
Pronoun. ˈaga
Pronoun. ˈaga
R - r
ratolí
Noun. baˈlawo
ˈfalen
realment
repetir
ˈbwas
riu
Noun. ˈsalo
S - s
salvatge
Adjective. ˈlamp
sí
Adverb. ˈba
Adverb. fem
següent
seixanta
Adjective.
ˈpulo
ˈn:
sempre Adverb. ˈtoni
set
Adjective. ˈfeːtu
uˈɾa:neʔ
sí (col·loquial)
a
sí (educat)
Adverb. iˈjo
sogre/a
Adverb. iˈja
sol
ˈn:
Noun. maˈtua
Noun. m
t :ʔ s̪o
Verb. ˈlutːu
sis
Adjective.
sobre
jaˈseʔna
sota
Adverb. jaˈwana
Adverb. ki
sovint
Adverb. biˈasa
maˈtua maʔˈkun̙rai
suc de coco
sogra
sortir volant
surar
Noun. twˈa
Verb. maˈwan
T - t
tarda
kuɾaˈwe
trenta-u
tu (col·loquial)
Adjective. ˈt
telèfon Noun. teleˈfon
tinta
trenta
pːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi
Noun. ˈɖawa
tres
tot just lalo
Adjective. ˈt
l:uˈpːulo
Noun. ˈiko
l:uˈ
Adjective. ˈt
tres-cents
ˈra:tu
l:u
Adjective. ˌtel:u
k:o
tu (educat)
Pronoun. ˈiɾi
tu (formal)
Pronoun. k:e
turó
Noun. ˈbulu
U - u
u
Adjective. ˈs̪eʔɖi
ull
Noun. ˈmaːta
un altre cop
Adverb. ˈfemo
69
V - v
vagina
Noun. ˈcombi
vell
Adjective. ˈbeːtːa
Adverb. maˈtoa
venir
Verb. ˈfwole
verd
Adjective. kuˈɖaɾa
vermell Adjective. celːa
vint
Adjective. ˌɖuaˈpːulo
voler
Verb. ˈlo
vosaltres (paucal)
Pronoun. ˈiɾi
vosaltres (tothom)
Pronoun. ˌiɾi
vuit
ˈman
Adjective. aˈɖua
68
6.
References
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