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A grammar sketch of the Bugis language Fieldwork David Valls 10/01/2014 0 I. Abbreviations 1 first person 2 second person 3 third person ABS absolutive ACC acusative ADJ adjective ART article COND conditional DEF definite DEM demonstrative DET determiner DIR Directional DL dialectal E epenthetic ERG ergative F feminine FRM formal FUT future tense LOC locative IM inverse marking IMPERF imperfective INF infinitive INFRM informal M masculine NEG negation NMZ nominalizer NOM Nominative PASS passive PL plural PREP preposition 1 II. PRN personal pronoun Q question marker R reduplication REL relative SG singular VBZ verbalizer Orthography Here there are the correspondences between the phonetic sound and the spelling used in this sketch. /b/ → b /c/ → c /d/ → d /f/ → f /g/ → g /h/ → h /j/ → y /k/ → k /l/ → l /m/ → m /n/ → n /ɲ/ → ny /ŋ/ → ng /p/ → p /r/ → r /s/ → s /t/ → t /ʃ/ → x /ʒ/ → j /ɟ/ → tj /w/ → w /ʔ/ → ‘ /a/ → a /e/ → e /i/ → i /o/ → o /u/ → u /ә/ → ë 2 Contents 1. The Bugis language: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5 1.1. 2. The Lontara script ...................................................................................................................................6 Phonology .......................................................................................................................................................8 2.1. Minimal pairs ...............................................................................................................................................9 3. 2.2. Allophones ............................................................................................................................................11 2.3. Phonological rules ................................................................................................................................12 2.4. Stress ....................................................................................................................................................13 2.5. Diphthongs ...........................................................................................................................................13 2.6. Phonotactics .........................................................................................................................................14 2.7. Phonetic gemination ............................................................................................................................17 Morphosyntax ..............................................................................................................................................17 3.1. Language typology .....................................................................................................................................17 4. 3.2. Word classes .........................................................................................................................................18 3.2. Phrases..................................................................................................................................................32 3.3. Verb phrase ..........................................................................................................................................36 3.4. Non‐verbal phrase ................................................................................................................................38 3.5. Adpositional phrase ..............................................................................................................................38 3.6. Sentence types .....................................................................................................................................39 3.7. Negation ...............................................................................................................................................40 3.8. Questions ..............................................................................................................................................40 3.9. Passive ..................................................................................................................................................41 3.10. Clauses ..............................................................................................................................................41 3.11. Adverbial clauses ..............................................................................................................................42 3.12. Coordination .....................................................................................................................................42 3.13. Reduplication ....................................................................................................................................43 Kinship terminology ......................................................................................................................................44 4.1. Historical kinship .......................................................................................................................................47 5. Appendix .......................................................................................................................................................48 5.1. Transcription text ......................................................................................................................................48 5.2. 6. Glossary ................................................................................................................................................50 References ....................................................................................................................................................69 3 4 1. The e Bugis la anguage: Introducction According A to Ethnologue, the Bugis la anguage beloongs to the family f of the Austronesiaan languagess and to the subfamily s of the Malayo‐‐Polynesian and a South Suulawesi langu uages. The la anguage is orriginally spoken in the island of Sulaawesi, which politically sp peaking beloongs to Indon nesia. Figure F 1. Map o of Sulawesi and d Indonesia. In red where Buggis is spoken. So ource: Google Maps. M Figure F 2. More detailed area. Source: Google e Maps. Some S of the alternate names of the e language aare De’, Rapp pang Buginese, Ugi (SIL Internationa al, 2013). Th he number n of sp peakers acco ording to Wikkipedia and EEthnologue is of 5 million n speakers. 5 For this sketch the source of information has been a single consultant, Mr. Andi Ahmad Yani, or just Yani, as he wishes to be called. He’s a 37 year old native Buginese studying for one year in The Netherlands. He is able to speak Bugis, Bahasa Indonesia and English. Yani is a speaker of the Barru dialect, which is the one spoken in Soppeng, where he’s from. According to him, the language is not being passed down to the younger generations. Yani declares himself as a self‐conscious Bugis speaker, however he affirms to be speaking Bahasa Indonesian to his daughter. He also admits that he has changed this tendency, lately. The language of the school and government is Bahasa Indonesia, even though that in recent times Bugis is been taught in schools as a subject, but it is not the vehicular language of the school. As for now, Ethnologue (2014) states that Bugis has a good health. Other languages spoken in the area are Makassar, Toraja, Mandar, Enrekang and Luwu. The data for this sketch was obtained during half an hour elicitations twice a week for about 10 weeks. 1.1. The Lontara script The Lontara script is a Brahmic script traditionally used for the Bugis, Makasarese, and Mandar languages of Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is also known as the Buginese script, as Lontara documents written in this language are the most numerous. It was largely replaced by the Latin alphabet during the period of Dutch colonization, though it is still used today to a limited extent (Wikipedia, 2014). The word Lontara is derived from the Malay name for palmyra palm, lontar, whose leaves are traditionally used for manuscripts. In Buginese, this script is called urupu sulapa eppa which means “four‐cornered letters”, referencing the Bugis‐Makasar belief of the four elements that shaped the universe: fire, water, air, and earth (Wikipedia, 2014). Although the Latin alphabet has largely replaced Lontara, it is still used to a limited extent in Bugis and Makasar. In Bugis, its usage is limited to ceremonial purposes such as wedding ceremonies. Lontara is also used extensively in printing traditional Buginese literature. In Makasar, Lontara is additionally used for personal documents such as letters and notes. Those who are skilled in writing the script are known as palontara, or 'writing specialists’ (Wikipedia, 2014). Lontara is an abugida1 with 23 basic consonant and it is written from left to right. 1 Abugida also called an alphasyllabary, is a segmental writing system in which consonant–vowel sequences are written as a unit: each unit is based on a consonant letter, and vowel notation is secondary (Wikipedia, 2013). 6 Figure F 3. The Lo ontara script. Source: Omniglo ot The T pallawa is used to seeparate rhythmico‐intonnational grou ups, and has a similar funnction to the e full stop an nd comma. c It caan also be used to denote e the doublinng of a word or its root. Sample S text iin the Lontarra script: (Wikipedia, 21004) Transliteratio T on: nako n ëngka taupasala. aja a mupatala alowi pacalaamu ritopasaalae. pasituju uwimutowissa asalana pacalamu. ap pa ikonatu nagiili dewatea. nako baicu umupi asalanna tauwe. muperajaisa. m ai tauwe. ajja padatowi. nako pasala timucalai t risitinajanaetossa asalana (adapted from m Wikipedia’ss transliterattion to orthoography). 7 Translation: If you deal with a person guilty of something, do not punish him too harshly. Always make the punishment commensurable with the guilt, since God will be angry with you if the person's guilt is not great and you are exaggerating it. Equally, if a person is guilty, do not let him go without a punishment in accordance with his guilt (Wikipedia, 2014). 2. Phonology The full inventory of Bugis phonemes are given in the following tables. The tables are divided between consonants and vowels. 2.0.1. Bugis consonants Figure 4. Bugis consonant. Bilabial Plosive Nasal p Trill Dental b m Alveolar d t s Fricative Affricate n r Post alveolar ʃ Velar Glottal c k ʔ ɟ ɲ l g ŋ ʒ h j Approximant Lateral approximant Palatal w 2.0.2. Bugis vowels Figure 5. Bugis vowels. Close Close-mid Open front i e Primary vowels central ә a back u o As it can be observed in the above tables, Bugis has a total of 19 consonant sounds, 2 semi consonants and 6 vowels. The [h] phoneme it only appears in loanwords from Bahasa Indonesian. There are the following long vowels: [iː], [eː], [aː], [oː] They are not contrastive [ˈtegi] and [ˈte:gi] ‘where’, or [ˈi:a] and [ˈia] ‘yes’. 8 The Austronesian languages vowel systems tend to be simple (Himmelmann & Adelaar, 2005, p. 115), in this case Bugis agrees with this statement with 6 vowels. [ә] is the only vowel which is not found as a long vowel. Stressed open syllables are pronounced long as they are heavy. In closed syllables the vowel is pronounced short, although the syllable remains heavy because of the coda. Consonant length is contrastive as it can be seen in 2.1. Minimal pairs. The following consonants can be found geminate: /pp/, /tt/, /kk/, /dd/, /bb/, /ss/, /mm/, /nn/, /ll/. 2.1. Minimal pairs The following is a list of minimal pairs or almost minimal pairs with its gloss to English. 2.1.1. Consonants: Contrast among /t/, /d/, /g/ and /ɟ/ (1) (2) (3) (4) [ˈata] ‘slave’ [ˈada] ‘word’ [ˈaga] ‘what’ [ˈaɟa] ‘don’t do it’ Contrast between [ʔ] and [Ø] (5) (6) [ˈtete] ‘breast’ [teʔˈteʔ] ‘hour’ Contrast among /s/, /d/ and /t/ (7) (8) (9) [ˈisi] ‘teeth’ [ˈidi] ‘you’ (polite) [ˈiti] ‘ duck’ Contrast between /ŋ/ and /ʔ/ (10) [ˈoŋko] ‘this is mine’ (11) [ˈoʔko] ‘bite’ Contrastive stress (12) [ˈasu] ‘dog’ (13) [aˈsu] ‘to go out’ Contrast among /p/, /c/, /k/ and /t/ 9 (14) [ˈkaca] ‘cup’ (15) [ˈata] ‘slave’ (16) (17) (18) (19) [ˈl t:e] ‘lightning’ [ˈp p:e] ‘hit’ [ˈk ce] ‘cold’ [ˈc ke] ‘cold’ Contrast among /b/, /p/, /w/, /m/ and /f/ (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) [b bˈua] 'stomach' [ˈpemeŋ] 'next' [ˈbecu] 'small' [ˈfetu] 'seven' [aˈbio] 'right hand' [baˈlawo] 'mouse' [ˈnaːmo] 'mosquito' [ˈbawi] 'pig' [ˈmenuŋ] 'drink' [sepˈulo] 'ten' Contrast among /l/, /r/ and /w/ (30) [ˈaːwa] ‘clouds’ (31) [ˈaːla] ‘to take’ (32) [ˈdaːra] ‘blood’ Contrast between /j/, /ɲ/ and /c/ (33) (34) (35) (36) [ˈkaca] 'cup' [ˈbaja] 'tomorrow' [ˈaja] imperative [ˈbaɲa] ‘goose’ Contrast among short and long consonants. (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42) (43) (44) (45) (46) (47) [ˈbaba] ‘smart’ [ˈbab:a] ‘whip’ [ˈpoto] ‘limit’ [ˈpotto] ‘bracelet’ [ˈpodo] ‘annoyed’ [ˈpoddo] ‘spinach’ [ˈposo] ‘breath’ [ˈposso] ‘press’ [ˈcodo] ‘piece’ [ˈcoddo] ‘dab’ [ˈcapa] ‘ignore’ 10 (48) [ˈcappa] ‘end’ (49) [ˈpoko] ‘stem’ (50) [ˈpokko] ‘capital’ 2.1.2. Vowels Contrast between /a/ and / / (51) [ˈamaʔ] ‘mother’ (52) [ˈam ʔ] ‘swallow’ Contrast between /a/ and /e/ (53) [ˈmate] ‘die’ (54) [ˈmata] ‘eye’ Contrast between /a/ and /i/ (55) [ˈita] ‘see’ (56) [ˈiti] ‘duck’ Contrast between /a/ and /u/ (57) [ˈana] ‘child’ (58) [ˈanu] ‘some one’ 2.2. Allophones 2.2.1. Consonants Base consonant → Allophone /b/ → voiced bilabial plosive [b] in intervocalic position and onset, free variation between [b] and voiced bilabial fricative [β]. /p/ → voiceless bilabial stop [p], free variation with voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ] or with voiceless labiodental fricative [f]. The phoneme /p/ has free variation with [p], [f] and [ɸ]. Roots with /p/ can be pronounced with [ɸ], [f] or [p]. The position of the phoneme within the root (initial or intervocalic) does not make any difference. (59) sapeda → [saˈpe:da], [saˈfeda] or [saˈɸeda] ‘bycicle’ (60) padarë → [paʔda:r ], [faʔda:r ] or [ɸaʔda:r ] 11 /d/ → non‐intervocalic position voiced alveolar stop [d], free variation in intervocalic position voiced alveolar tap [ɾ] and voiced dental fricative or approximant [ð]. /g/ → voiced velar plosive [g] in onset and in intervocalic position there is free variation between [g] and voiced velar fricative [ɣ]. /ŋ/ → voiced velar nasal [ŋ] becomes voiced bilabial nasal [m] when preceding a labial consonant. Becomes voiced alveolar nasal [n] when preceding an alveolar consonant. Becomes voiced palatal nasal [ɲ] when preceding a palatal. 2.2.2. Vowels /a/ → open front unrounded [a] with the allophone the fairly‐open central unrounded [ɐ], which appears only after the palatal [j]. In contact with nasals it shows the nasalized allophone [ã]. /o/ → mid back rounded [o] with its nasal one [õ], allophone between nasals and preceding /ŋ/ at the end of word. /u/ → close back rounded [u] in free variation with voiced velarized bilabial approximant [w]. [ũ] allophone between nasals.. /e/ → close‐mid front rounded [e], with its nasal one [ẽ] in contact with nasals. / / → mid central rounded [ ] with the nasal allophone [ ̃ ] in contact with nasals and preceding /ŋ/. /i/ → close front unrounded [i] which in contact with nasals has the [ĩ] allophone. It also has the voiced palatal approximant [j]. As seen, [j] and [w] are allophones of [i] and [u], but at the same time they are phonemes. In Bugis, the stress is usually penultimate, in a word‐final /iV/ or /uV/, they will be stressed. However, when a suffix is attached to the root, like ‐ku (first person genitive) in the examples below, stress goes to the end of the word, then is when the allophones [j] and [w] show up. (61) /wanua/ → [waˈnua] 'village' (62) /wanuaku/ → [wanˈwaku] 'my village' (63) /abio/ → [aˈbio] 'right hand' (64) /abioku/ → [abˈjoku] 'my right hand' 2.3. Phonological rules 12 Out of the previous allophones it is possible to postulate the following phonological rules. 2.3.1. /d/ → [ɾ] and [ð] [‐δ, +ant, +voice] → [ɾ], [ð] / [+δ]____[+δ] 2.3.2. /ŋ/ → [n], [m], [ɲ] [‐δ, +back, +nasal] → [n] / __ [‐δ, +cor] [‐δ, +back, +nasal] → [m] / __[‐δ, +lab] [‐δ, +back, +nasal] → [ɲ] / __[‐δ, ‐back] 2.3.3. /u/, /i/ → /w/, /j/ [+δ, +high, ‐stress] → [‐δ, ‐stress] / __[+δ] 2.4. Stress In Austronesian languages, the stress is usually non‐distinctive and occurs on the penultimate syllable. (Himmelmann & Adelaar, 2005, p. 116). In general terms, Bugis has the stress in the penultimate syllable in words with three or more syllables. The stress is expressed by loudness. Long vowels also express where the stress is: [tai ˈla:so] ‘fuck’, [ˈte:gi] ‘where’, [aˈɾo:la] ‘his/her heart’; while long consonants do not always express stress: [ˈt l:u] ‘three’, [ˈut:u] ‘knee’. In words of two syllables, the stress can be either at the first syllable or at the last. Stress can be contrastive, that means that by changing the stress, the meaning can be changed. For example, [ˈasu] ‘dog’ and [aˈsu] ‘to go’. Therefore, in words of three or more syllables stress is predictable, but in words of two syllables it is only predictable when the word ends in an approximant, then the stress falls into it. The stress is also predictable when the possessive is added at the end of the word. The stress moves to the penultimate syllable, as it becomes, at least, a three syllable word. For example, [ˈbo.la] ‘house’ becomes [bo.ˈla:.t:a] ‘your house’. The stress also moves to the final syllable when the definite –e is added, [ˈasu] → [asuˈe]. 2.5. Diphthongs Every time the definite article –e is added at the end of a word and this one is preceded by a semi consonant, a diphthong is formed. (65) [ˈa.su] ‘dog’ → [a.ˈswe] ‘the dog’ Other diphthongs are found in the following examples: 13 (66) (67) (68) (69) (70) (71) (72) (73) [da.wa] ‘worm’ [ˈjɐ.ɾi] ‘finger’ [ˈja.saŋ] ‘name’ [ˈje] ‘this’ [ˈjo.ɾo] ‘those’ [ˈkwe] ‘here’ [ˈwi.n:i] ‘night’ [fwo.ˈpoŋ] ‘to come’ In example 135 there are two vowels in separate syllables that are pronounced as a diphthong. Examples 6614 to 143 are vowels from the same syllable. 2.6. Phonotactics 2.6.1. Syllable structure In Austronesian languages the most common syllable structures are CV and CVC (Himmelmann & Adelaar, 2005, p. 115). Bugis appears to share this syllable structure of CV as a main feature. Its roots are mainly bisyllabic. These are the syllable combinations with bisyllabic roots in Bugis: CV [ˈlo] ‘want’ CCV [ŋˈka] ‘there is’ CVV [ˈdua] ‘two’ VCV [ˈa.su] ‘dog’ VCVC [ˈe.ɟuŋ] ‘cloth’ VCCV [ˈam.ba] ‘hit’ VCCVC [ˈam.boʔ] ‘father’ CVCV [ˈme.ga] ‘many’ CVVC [ˈda.iŋ] ‘older sibling’ CVCCV [ˈcom.bi] ‘vagina’ CVCVC [ˈme.nuŋ] ‘drink’ CVCCVC [ˈpoʔ.poŋ] ‘tree’ 14 There is some re‐syllabification in cases where the ‐e suffix is added at the end of the word. For example, [maʔ.ˈkun.raj], becomes [maʔ.ˌkun.ra.ˈje]. Therefore, the word ending goes from CVV to CV.VV, and the stress shifts to the end. When adding the possessive, the initial consonant of the possessive appears as a geminate sound and stress moves to the second syllable. For example, [ˈbo.la] ‘house’ CV.CV changes to [bo.ˈla:.k:u] ‘my house’ CV.CVV.CCV; [bo.ˈla:.t:a] ‘your house’ CV.CVV.CCV. In Bugis some few trisyllabic roots can be found as well: VCVV [a.ˈbio] ‘right hand’ VCVCV [a.ˈse.ra] ‘nine’ CVCCVV [beb.bua] ‘stomach’ 2.6.2. Consonant clusters Bugis has the following intervocalic clusters: (74) (75) (76) (77) (78) (79) (80) /ʔd/ [ˈtaʔ.dam] ‘sorry’ /nr/ [ˈkun.rai] ‘woman’ /ŋk/ [ŋˈka] ‘there is’ /mb/ [am.ˈboʔ] ‘father’ /mp/ [ˈɾum.pu] ‘smoke’ /nʒ/ [ma.ˈkan.ʒa] ‘good’ /nd/ [ˈin.do] ‘mother’ In Bugis is frequent to find glottal stops after the morpheme boundary; the cause is a root which ends in a glottal stop with a suffix or enclitic that starts with a consonant attached. The following examples are clusters not caused by morphology: (81) /ʔt/ [t ʔ.ˈteʔ] ‘hit’ (82) /ʔp/ [saʔ.ˈpiseŋ] ‘cousin’ (83) /ʔs/ [m .t :ʔ.so] ‘sun’ 2.6.3. Vowels clusters Bugis has the following vowel clusters or hiatus: (84) (85) (86) (87) /ua/ [maˈtua] ‘mother/father in law’ /io/ [aˈbio] ‘right hand’ /eo/ [ˈmeo] ‘cat’ /oa/ [maˈtoa] ‘old’ 15 2.6.4. Consonant position (88) /p/ → [aʔpaˈɖa:tu] ‘four hundrerd’, [paˌtaˈpːulo] ‘forty’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (89) /b/ → [baˈlawo] ‘mouse’, [kaˈɾeb ] ‘news’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (90) /m/ → [maˈɾidi] ‘yellow’, [ˈɾumpu] ‘smoke’, [ˈfemoŋ] ‘again’. It appears at onset, coda and intervocalic position. (91) /f/ → [ˈfemoŋ] ‘again’, [ˈaːfi] ‘fire’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (92) /s/ → [ˈsaɾo], [ˈas̪u]. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (93) /d/ → [ˈduʔŋa] ‘world’, [maˈɾidi] ‘yelow’, [ˈced:e] ‘few’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (94) /t/ → [ˈtabe] ‘excuse me’, [ˈata] ’slave’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (95) /n/ → [ˈjasaŋ] ‘name’, [ˈunuɾu] ‘age’, [maʔˈkun̙ rai] ‘woman’, [naʔdaɾa], [al ˈn.n boˈlae] ‘her house’. It appears at onset and in nucleus position, as well as in intervocalic position. (96) /r/ → [raˈbaː] ‘Wednesday’, [maʔˈkun̙ rai] ‘woman’, [karˈtasa] ‘paper’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (97) /ʃ/ → [ˈʃjaga]. It appears at onset. (98) /ʒ/ → [ˈaʒe] ‘foot’, [maˈkanʒa] ‘good’, [faʔˈʒelo] ‘index finger’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (99) /c/ → [ˈced:e] ‘few’, [ˈdaucili] ‘ear’s, [beʔˈcu] ‘small’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (100) /ɟ/ → [ˈɟoka] ‘walk’, [maˈɟa:] ‘bad’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (101) /ɲ/ → ['baɲa] ‘duck’. It appears at intervocalic position. (102) /j/ → [ˈjasaŋ] ‘name’, [aˈbjo] ‘right hand’, [iˈja] ‘yes’. It appears at onset, coda, and intervocalic position. (103) /k/ → [ˈkamːisi] ‘Thursday’, [ˈoŋko] ‘mine’, [ˈoʔko] ‘bite’, [akuˈro] ‘there’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (104) /g/ → [ˈmega] ‘many’, [m g ˈl:o:] ‘good’. It appears at onset and intervocalic position. (105) /ŋ/ → [ˈas ŋ] ‘name’, [ˈiŋ ʔ] ‘nose’, [ŋˈka] ‘there’, [ˈoŋko] ‘mine’. It appears at coda and in nucleus position, as well as in intervocalic position. (106) /w/ → [ˈbwas ŋ] ‘repeat’, [ˈdawa] ‘ink’, [ˈwai] ‘water’. It appears at onset, intervocalic, and coda position. (107) /ʔ/ → [ˈamaʔ] ‘mother’, [ˈoʔko] ‘bite’. It appears at coda and coda position. (108) /h/ → [ˈaha] ‘Sunday’. This phoneme belongs only to loanwords. It appears in an intervocalic position. (109) /l/ → [ˈbale] ‘fish’, [ˈlaːso] ‘penis’. It appears at onset, intervocalic. 16 2.6.5. Vowel position /a/ → [ˈaːfi] ‘fire’, ['baɲa] ‘duck’. /e/ → [ˈaʒe] ‘foot’, [ˈceiba] ‘monkey’. /i/ → [ˈaːfi] ‘fire’, [ˈiga] ‘who’. /o/ → [ˈaɾo] ‘chest’, [ˈoɾi] ‘bottom’, [ˈpoʔˈpeʔ] ‘hit’. /u/ → [ˈunuɾu] ‘age’. / / → ['b ɲa] ‘greed’, [ˈaɖ ] ‘norm’, [ˈiŋ ʔ] ‘nose’, [ ʔˈpa] ‘four’. 2.7. Phonetic gemination There’s only one case of phonetic gemination, which is when a noun ends in [ŋ]. Then it geminates this sound in order to add the definite article: (112) [meoŋ] ‘cat’ → [meoŋ:e] ‘the cat’ 3. Morphosyntax 3.1. Language typology According to Tryon (1995, p. 554), Bugis is an ergative‐absolutive language and that is the starting point of analysis for the following sections. In Bugis word order is not rigid and different orders are found. For example, there are some SVO constructions as it can be seen in the following examples: (113) la dafi na‐w‐nu miong‐e ART.M 3sgERG‐E‐kill cat‐DEF 'David kills the cat.' (114) ia ma‐unu‐w=i la Dafi PRN.1sg VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David 'I kill David.' However, constructions of this kind are not widely found. The vast majority of given sentences in Bugis, word order is VOS. This is the prototypical sentence in Bugis: 17 (115) na‐unu‐w=i oto‐e la dafi 3sgERG‐kill‐E=3sgABS car‐DEF ART.M David 'David kills the car.' Since the vast majority of constructions and non‐marked constructions in Bugis are like the one in (115), it can be considered as a VOS language. However, word order ends up depending on grammatical relations such as topicalization and focalization, where the noun phrase in order to be emphasized is placed to the front of the clause. For a language, being ergative‐absolutive means that the single argument of an intransitive verb behaves like the object of a transitive verb, and differently from the agent of a transitive verb. An ergative language maintains a syntactic or morphological equivalence for the object of a transitive verb and the single core argument of an intransitive verb, while treating the agent of a transitive verb differently. It is possible to appreciate its ergativity in its verbal morphology and through its pronominal system and agent‐patient pronominal markings, which are all attached to the verb. In transitive verbs, the proclitic is the ergative case which indicates the agent, and the enclitic is absolutive case which indicates the patient. In intransitive verbs, there’s only an enclitic which is the absolutive case indicating the agent. It is shown in chapters 3.2.19. and 3.3. Bugis is a pro‐drop language. The subject of a sentence can be omitted, as opposite to English where expressing the subject is always a must. Bugis can omit the subject because this one it is already expressed with a verbal marker. The head of a phrase is the element that determines the syntactic function of the whole phrase. So, in a noun phrase the head is the noun that refers to the same entity that the whole phrase refers to (Payne, 2010, p. 31). Some languages tend to mark the relationship between a head and a dependent on the head, while others tend to mark the relationship on the dependent. For example, English is predominantly a dependent‐ marking language. This is shown by the fact that in possessive noun phrases, the head noun is not marked to indicate that it is possessed; rather the possessor is marked: “Leiden’s windmills”. Bugis is a head‐marking language, that means that marks the possessed as opposite of the English language, for example. (116) na‐anre=i oti‐na la Dafi 3sgERG‐eat=3sgABS banana‐3sgGEN ART.M David ‘David eats his banana’ 3.2. Word classes 3.2.1. Article Bugis has a definite article expressed by –e which does not work all the time in the same way as in many western languages do, for example as in English. Sometimes it just translates as ‘the’ or sometimes English 18 does not require it as it is understood, while Bugis still needs to use it, since it is also used as a focalizer. It goes attached at the end of nouns and adjectives as a suffix, and it takes the stress. It never goes with personal names. (117) [ˈoto] → [oto‐ˈe] car car‐DEF ‘car’ ‘the car’ In the following example, Bugis requires the definite article –e, whereas English doesn’t, as it has enough definition with ‘that’, but at the same time it works as a focalizer for ‘house’. (118) Dafi puna yoro bolaˈ‐e David have that house‐DEF ‘David has that house’ Bugis has no determiner article. (119) a’ka asu there dog ‘There is a dog’ (120) asu ye (also ye asu) dog this ‘this is a dog’ Proper names may have and ‘i’ in front if it is for a woman or a ‘la’ if it is for a man. These are articles for gender marking. For example it would be: (121) la Yani / i Amanda ART.M Yani / ART.F Amanda These personal articles are also definers. 3.2.2. Pronouns 3.2.2.1. Personal pronouns The 2nd person has informal and formal. The 3rd person has no gender and no distinction between human and not human. 19 Figure 6. Personal pronouns I you singular informal you singular formal He/she/it We You plural informal You plural formal They iya iko iri alena idi maneng iko maneng (lit. you all) iri maneng (lit. you all) alena maneng (lit. he/she/it all) Examples of use: (122) iya ma‐unu‐w=i yanu PRN.1sg VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS someone ‘I want to kill someone.’ (123) iko ma‐unu‐w=i yanu PRN.2sgINFRM VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS someone ‘You want to kill someone.’ (124) iri ma‐unu‐w=i PRN.2sgFRM VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS ‘You want to kill someone.’ yanu someone Example (124) is only an example of use; in real life probably it does not make sense to treat in a formal and respectful way someone that is going to be killed. The 3rd person alena is a lexicalization of ale ‘body’ and –na, 3rd person genitive, so literally means ‘his/her body’. 3.2.2.2. Possessive pronouns These pronouns are suffixes and appear attached to the possessed. Figure 7. Possessive pronouns My/mine Your/yours formal Your/yours informal His/hers/their/its our/ours Genitive ‐ku ‐ta ‐mu ‐na ‐ta The reflexive pronouns are created with the word a’le which means ‘body’ where the genitive is attached to it. 20 (125) a’le‐ta body‐2sgGEN ‘yourself’ 3.2.2.3. Interrogative pronouns Figure 8. Interrogative pronouns What Where Who When How Which why aga teegi iga uppanna maagai yategi magai It is important to note that most of these pronouns have a similar root as marked in black in the above. This ‘g’ or ‘ga’ derives from the question marker that is described in chapter 3.8 as well as examples of use of the interrogative pronouns. 3.2.2.4. Demonstrative pronouns There are two demonstrative pronouns to refer to an object close to the speaker: ‘yaro’ and ‘ye’ which would translate as ‘this’. There is another pronoun to refer of an object far from the speaker: ‘yoro’ (that). When using the demonstrative with a noun, we must use the definite article. Let’s take a look at some examples: (126) yaro bo’bo’‐e this book‐DEF ‘this book’ (127) yaro yoga bo’bo‐e this call book‐DEF ‘This is called book’ In English, the demonstrative pronoun already defines the noun, but not in Bugis, where the definite article is still necessary. Demonstrative + numeral + noun: (128) ye ë’pa ma’num’anu this four birds ‘These four birds’ The definite article is not used in the case above, because in this case the numeral already works as a definite. The demonstrative can also act as determiners: 21 (129) ye yasa meong DET called cat ‘This is called cat’ 3.2.3. Nouns In Bugis there’s no difference between alienable and non‐alienable nouns in terms of using possession so, as seen above, the possessive is added after the noun: (130) lima‐na arm‐3sgGEN ‘His/her arm’ (131) bola‐na House‐3sgGEN ‘His/her house’ In Bugis nouns do not show variation in terms of gender and number. However we can find reduplication to create new meanings: (132) bo’bo’ → ‘book’ (133) manu’manu’ → ‘bird’ (manu’ ‘chicken’) (134) ana’ana’ → ‘children’ (ana ‘son/daughter’) 3.2.3.1. Noun formation From adjectives and intransitive verbs nouns are form by adding a‐ + adjective/verb stem + ‐ang (135) ma‐lampe ‘long’ → a‐lampe‐rang ‘length’ (136) m(a)‐anre ‘eat’ → (a)‐anre‐ang ‘eating place’ From transitive verbs we add pa‐: (137) ma‐kkaya ‘to fish’ → pa‐kkaya ‘fisher’ (138) ma‐kkita ‘to see’ → pa‐kkita ‘vision’ (139) ma‐rengkalinga ‘to hear’ → pa‐rengkalinga ‘audience’ 3.2.3.2. Gender and number In Bugis there’s no morpheme to express plural. They express number by using the adjective ‘mega’, which means ‘many’. (140) mega asu many dog ‘dogs’ Another way to express plural is with numerals: 22 (141) tëllu anaana three boy ‘three boys’ Bugis does not have any special morpheme to express gender. In the case of kinship, for example, the word ‘urane’ (man) and ‘makunrai’ (woman) is added to distinguish gender. (142) amure ‘uncle/aunt’ (143) amure urane uncle/aunt man ‘uncle’ (144) amure makunrai uncle/aunt woman ‘aunt’ 3.2.3.3. Noun creation through noun As in a similar way to English, Bugis joins two nouns in a compounding process, to create a new noun or a compound. (145) fopong palm‐e tree palm‐DEF ‘The palm tree’ (146) mata’ ëso’ eye day ‘Sun’ 3.2.4. Adjectives The adjective is placed after the noun: (147) ceiba fute monkey white ‘white monkey’ Adjectives are characterized by reduplication when one wants to express superiority or inferiority. (148) becu → becu‐ecu ADJ.small → ADJ.small‐RED ‘small’ → smaller becuecu ye meong‐e na ye asu‐e smaller this cat‐DEF CONJ this dog‐DEF ‘This cat is smaller than this dog’ 23 (149) malampe → malampe‐lampe ADJ.long → ADJ.long‐RED ‘long’ → longer malampelampe ye oto‐e na yoro oto‐e longer this car‐DEF CONJ that car‐DEF ‘This car is longer than that car’ When one wants to express an absolute value, it is used the word fom ‘most’: (150) ye oto‐e fom becu this car‐DEF most small ‘this car is the smallest’ 3.2.4.1. Colors Some of the color names are the following: Figure 9. Colors in Bugis white Black Red Green Blue Yellow Brown fute bolong cella kudaɾa gau maridi sikola The word for brown is sikola ‘chocolate’ which is a borrowing from Dutch. When colors are placed in a sentence they are verbalized with the ma‐ prefix, so colors are verbs and work as verbs. (151) se’di ma‐bolong, dua ma‐sikola one VBZ‐black two VBZ‐chocolate ‘one is black, two are brown’ The literal translation for the example just seen would be: *’one is blacking, two are browning’ 3.2.4.2. Numerals Bugis has a base ten numeral system: One – se’di Two ‐ dua Three ‐ tëllu Four – ë’pa 24 Five – lima Six ‐ ënëng Seven ‐ feetu Eight ‐ arua Nine ‐ asera Ten – sepulo Eleven – sepulo se’di Twelve – sepulo dua Thirteen – sepulo tëllu Fourteen – sepulo ë’pa Twenty – dua pulo Twenty one – dua pulo se’di Thirty – tëllu pulo Thirty one – tëllu pulo se’di Forty – pata pulo Fifty – lima pulo One hundred – siratu From one to ten there are nuclear units, it is impossible to see any root or any particle that tell us about the numeral formation. From eleven to twenty, Bugis does 10+1, 10+2, etc. Then, twenty is 2x10, twenty‐one is 2x10+1. Thirty is 3x10 and so on. One hundred is ‘siratu’, again a nuclear unit impossible to break down. The word for five and hand is the same: lima. The similarity between ‘dua’ in Bugis (a shared word with at least Indonesian/Malay) and ‘dva’ in Sanskrit is quite obvious. According to Blust (2013) loanwords from Sanskrit are found in languages in the Philippines as well as in Indonesia and Malaysia. For example, in Malay (and in Bahasa Indonesia) the word for ‘first’ is pertama, which comes from Sanskrit (Blust, 2013, p. 291). Once again, Blust (2013, p. 151) states that the influence of Sanskrit over old Javanese has been enormous, which shows the influence of the Sanskrit language over the area. In Javanese number two is ‘loro’, however as seen with Malay and Indonesian, numbers can be borrowed, so, it might be a coincidence or not, but certainly ‘dua’ could come from Sanskrit. 3.2.5. Adverbs Time adverbs are placed at the end of the sentence, but they rarely can be found also at the beginning of the sentence. Through time adverbs Bugis expresses tense. 25 (152) ma‐andre=ki otti onnaele’‐e VBZ‐eat=2sgFRM.ABS banana morning‐DEF ‘You ate a banana this morning’ (153) ma‐andre=ka otti batja VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana tomorrow ‘Tomorrow I will eat banana’ As it is seen in the examples above, adverbs take enclitics as other words do. Here another example: (154) biase=ki usually=1plABS ‘We usually’ Some other adverbs are: tappa (then) and femëng (again). (155) uppanna mulesu femëng when come back again ‘When are you going to go back?’ (156) tappa akka manu laalo then there is chicken pass ‘then a chicken passes by’ 3.2.6. Verbs In Bugis all verbs consist of stem which is completed with affixes and clitics. As said, the basic order in a Bugis sentence is placing the verb at the beginning. The verb may show one of the following combinations: (157) ma+verb+ABS ma‐andre=ka VBZ‐eat=1sgABS ‘I eat’ (158) verb+ABS lo=ka will=1sgABS ‘I will’ (159) ERG+Verb+ABS mu=unu=ka 2sgERG=kill=1sgABS ‘He/she kills me’ 26 (160) IMPRF+ma+verb+ABS la‐ma‐kelong=i IMPRF‐VBZ‐sing=3sgABS ‘was singing’ (161) PASS+verb+ABS i‐unu‐w=i PASS‐kill‐E=3sgABS ‘is killed’ (162) PASS+verb i‐anre PASS‐eat ‘be eaten’ (163) Verb alone miong‐e maate cat‐DEF die ‘the cat dies’ The verb also may appear after the object in a SV order and only with transitive verbs: (164) iia ma‐unu‐w=i PRN.1sg VBZ‐kill‐E=3sgABS ‘I kill David’ la Dafi ART.M David Bugis has no copulative verb. Let’s take a look at some examples: (165) asu ye (also ye asu) dog this ‘This is a dog’ (166) a’ka asu there dog ‘there is a dog’ (167) mega asu many dog ‘There are many dogs’ 3.2.6.1. Ma‐ prefix Bugis has verbal stems and non‐verbal stems. Ma‐ is a verbalizer for non‐verbal stems. In English, what lexical category does ‘book’ have? If we want it to be a verb we have to add ‘to’. In Bugis, what lexical category does ‘anre’ have? If we want it to be a verb we must add ma‐. This ma‐ may be omitted when we add an ergative proclitic to the stem and therefore, we establish the relationship between agent and patient, then there’s no 27 need to verbalize the stem, since the relationship between an agent and a patient can only be established by a verb in this case. When adding the ma‐ enclitic to a verb initial sentence, we are shifting the agent mark from a proclitic position to an enclitic one. That is, since there’s no ergative mark because it is substituted by ma‐, it is the absolutive mark which is in charge of expressing the agent. This process is called inverse‐marking. Ma‐ is also used to establish the infinitive form → ma‐baca ‘to read’. Ma‐ can also be applied to verbalize nouns. (168) ma‐golo VBZ‐ball ‘play football’ 3.2.6.2. Transitive verbs In example (169) we can appreciate what it is just said above: the stem takes a verbalizer, from that moment we have action, we have a verb. The canonical way of Bugis word order tells us the agent goes at the end, which is focalized by the definite article. In that case, the verb does not need the absolutive to mark agent, either, since there’s no ambiguity. In example (170) there’s agreement in the verbal proclitic, where the agent is expressed and in the enclitic, where the patient is expressed. In transitive verbs we can have both, a proclitic and an enclitic. (169) ma‐anre buku asu‐e VBZ‐eat bone dog‐DEF ‘The dog eats a bone’ (170) na=unu‐w=i la Dafi oto‐e 3sgERG=kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David car‐DEF ‘The car kills David’ 3.2.6.3. Intransitive verbs The prototypical sentence with an intransitive verb is the following: (171) more‐w=i tomatoa cough‐E=3sgABS old man ‘the old man coughs’ 28 (172) ta’rasi‐n=i anana‐e sneeze‐PAST=3sgABS children‐DEF ‘The children sneezed’ Intransitive verbs only take enclitics which express the agent. 3.2.6.2. Tense Bugis has 3 tenses: past, present and future. As in many languages, tense it is mainly expressed by temporal adverbs without the need of adding any tense marker in the verb. 3.2.6.2.1. Present tense (173) ma‐anre=ka oti VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana ‘I eat banana’ As we see, there are no special tense marks in the verb for expressing present. 3.2.6.2.2. Past tense (174) jo’ka‐taro go‐PAST ‘went’ (175) jo’ka‐ria go‐PAST away ‘went away’ (176) ma‐anru‐n=i VBZ‐fall down‐PAST‐3sgABS ‘He fell down’ (177) ma‐anre‐w=i oti‐e VBZ‐eat‐E=3sgABS banana‐DEF ‘I already ate the banana’ (178) mate‐n=i die‐PAST=3sgABS ‘He died’. As seen in the examples above, the past is expressed by several suffixes. The ‘n’ suffix is inserted between the stem and the enclitic on examples (176) and (178). The rest of the examples which are translated as past, the tense is given by the context and there no special mark for it. 29 3.2.6.2.3. Future tense (179) lo=ka ma‐anre want=3sgABS VBZ‐eat ‘I will eat’ This way of forming the future is by using the verb ‘lo’ (to want) as auxiliary and adding to it the patient mark altogether with the main clause verb. (180) lo‐n‐i mate want‐FUT‐3sgABS die ‘he/she will die’ As it can be seen ‘n’ is a mark for the future tense, as well as it is a mark for past tense. The difference in use is that when we want to use ‘n’ as a past marker, it has to be inserted in the verb, whereas if we want it to be a future marker it has to be inserted in the auxiliary verb ‘lo’ (to want). 3.2.6.2. Aspect A clear example of an imperfective form is the following: (181) lamakelongngi la‐ma‐keloŋ=ŋi la‐ma‐keloŋ=i IMPERF‐VBZ‐sing=3sgABS ‘He/she was singing’ The example above is the only one available where the apparent mark of ‘la’ as imperfective. The rest examples, we have verbs with the ma‐ prefix and where the translations fluctuate between present tense, imperfective and present continuous, all depending on context. (182) ma‐roki suru‐e la Dafi VBZ‐write letter‐DEF ART.M David ‘David is writing the letter’ or ‘David writes the letter’ (183) ma‐roki mufi la Dafi VBZ‐write still ART.M David ‘David is still writing’. There’s not a special mark for the perfect tense and it is made as described in 5.6.4.2, although again, context and adverbs help with it. (184) ma‐anre=ka oti onnaele‐e VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana morning‐DEF ‘I will eat a banana in the morning’ 30 3.2.6.2. Mood Indicative is the non‐marked mood: (185) ma‐anre=ka oti VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana ‘I eat a banana’ (186) idi’ maneng mu=unu‐w=i la Dafi PRN.1sg all 2sgERG=kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David ‘We kill David’ The conditional is form in the following way: (187) akkuia ma‐anjagi manumanu ka lo=ka luttu kiase=na fopong COND VBZ‐become bird PREP want=1sgABS fly over=3sgABS tree ‘if I was a bird, I would fly up to a tree’. And to end this mood section, here it is how the imperative is formed: (188) unu‐w=i la Dafi kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David ‘Kill David!’ (189) tulung=i la Dafi help=3sgABS ART.M David ‘Help David!’ The formation of the imperative is with the stem with no proclitic and the absolutive enclitic. The prohibitive is formed from with the imperative works in the following way: (190) atja mu=anre manëngi roti‐e NEG 2sgABS=eat whole bread‐DEF ‘do not eat the whole bread!’ ‘atja’ is a negation adverb for the imperative. 3.2.7. Prepositions Some of the prepositions in Bugis are: (191) ko sikola‐e to school‐DEF ‘to the school’ 31 (192) pole po’pong‐e from tree‐DEF ‘from the tree’ (193) ku bulu‐e (ki in some dialects) on hill‐DEF ‘on the hill’ Some other prepositions are: sibawa (with), jawana (under), munri (behind), siwali (beside), jasena (on), etc. The most interesting feature in prepositions is that ‘ku’ can take enclitics as well. (194) ku=ka bola‐ku at=1sgABS house‐1sgGEN ‘I’m at my home’ 3.2. Phrases 3.2.1. Noun phrase The noun phrase in Bugis may be made of the following elements: (195) Noun manu ‘chicken’ (196) Adjective+noun becu kampong ‘small village’ (197) Noun+adjective ceiba fute monkey white ‘white monkey’ (198) Noun+Adjective+DEF risi bolong‐e line black‐DEF ‘the black line’ (199) Noun+DEF asu‐e dog‐DEF ‘The dog’ 32 (200) Noun+GEN bola‐na la Dafi house‐3sgGEN ART.M David ‘David’s house’ (201) Noun+ABS bola=ka house=1sgABS ‘My house’ (202) Numeral+noun tëllu bola three house ‘three houses’ 3.2.6. Articles and demonstratives A pragmatic issue that plays a significant role in the encoding of noun is identifiability and referentiality. Certain noun phrases refer to entities that the speaker judges should be identifiable by the addressee. In English, the article ‘the’ is one means of expressing identifiability. In Bugis, as said on chapter 3.2.1, it is the definite article in the suffix form of –e. (203) jo’ka anan‐e ku sikola‐e go children‐DEF PREP school‐DEF ‘The children go to the school’ The use of –e in example (203) instructs the addressee that there are some specific children that go to a specific school, which the speaker is referring to. Furthermore, if this were a real communication situation, the speaker would probably assume that the addressee knows who these children are and what school we are talking about. That is, the speaker treats the participants in question as identifiable given the information the speaker assumes the addressee has available. If we don’t use the definite article –e, we assume that we are just talking about any children that go to just any school. Bugis has a more extensive use of the article than English, marking the direct object, as well as used probably due to prosodic or pragmatic reasons, for example to focalize. Therefore there are many instances where the Bugis speaker feels the need of defining a noun, whereas in English it is not required. (204) u‐foy=i ye tëryang‐e 1sgERG‐like=2sgABS this dance‐e ‘I like this dance’ Example (204) English has enough defining ‘dance’ with the demonstrative ‘this’, therefore there’s no need for an extra identifiable particle such as ‘the’, whereas Bugis still requires the definite article to specify that we are talking about a known and particular dance. 33 One added feature of –e is that when added to a verb, it nominalizes it by defining it. (205) ma‐safeda‐e VBZ‐bike‐DEF ‘the biker’ The example above is quite curious; as we take a noun, we verbalize it with ma‐, and then we nominalize it back again with –e to express the person who is doing the action. As seen, Bugis has demonstrative pronouns, which are free forms. They precede the noun. Demonstratives imply “pointing to” or “demonstrating” the object they refer to. (206) ye bola‐e this house‐DEF ‘This house’ (207) yoro bola‐e that house‐DEF ‘That house’ In addition to exhibiting the features common to the pronoun system of the language (number, gender, etc.), demonstratives often express distance with respect to the speaker or to the hearer, this is the case of Bugis which has two degrees of distance as seen on examples (206) and (207). Some languages make a distinction between items close to the hearer, items close to the speaker, and items distant from both. That does not seem to be the case of Bugis. 3.2.7. Numerals When counting objects, the number is placed before the noun: (208) tëllu bola three house ‘three houses’ When there’s an adjective, the order is numeral + adjective + noun: (209) dua tanru‐na be’mbe’‐e two horn‐3sgGEN goat‐DEF ‘the goat’s two horns’ To indicate the number of people who is doing the action, we must place the numeral after the personal pronoun, and then the agent is attached to the numeral. (210) idi dua=ki PRN.1pl two=2sgABS ‘(the) two of us’ The numeral acts as a definite article, therefore there’s no need for the definite article ‘‐e’. 34 A sentence can start by a numeral, being this one the subject of a sentence. (211) tëllu=i na‐unu meong‐e four=3sgABS 3sgERG‐kill cat‐DEF ‘The four of us kill the cat’ In (211) the numeral takes an enclitic. 3.2.8. Possession The full paradigm of possessive suffixes is given in chapter 3.2.2.2 in Figure 7. Possession is expressed by a genitive enclitic. (212) bola‐na la David house‐3sgGEN ART.M David ‘David’s house’ (213) ulu‐na ambo’=ko head‐3sgGEN father=3sgABS ‘My father’s head’ Languages typically express many semantic relationships with the same formal construction used to express ownership. So, we have possessive constructions: (214) ulu‐ku head‐1sgGEN ‘My head’ (215) bola‐ku house‐1sgGEN ‘My house’ And there are constructions where even though Bugis uses a possessive, possession is not being indicated. In these examples, family relationships are indicated: (216) anure‐ku niece‐1sgGEN ‘My niece’ (217) silo‐ku friend‐1sgGEN ‘my friend’ Bugis has no inherence in possession. 35 3.2.9. Relative clauses The following exemple is a relative clause: (218) yare roti‐e foro‐mull=i iwini This bread‐DEF REL‐buy=3sgABS yesterday ‘This is the bread that he bought yesterday’ The following is the analysis of (36): → yare ro e fura‐ [Ø mulli iwini] The head, the noun phrase modified by the clause, is ‘yare rotie’, the restricting clause is [Ø mulli iwini]. The relativized noun phrase, which is the co‐referent element with the head noun, in this case is Ø. The relativizer in Bugis is shown as a prefix attached to the verb, ‘foro’. In this case, the verb takes the relativizer and there’s no agent insertion in between. The agent moves to the enclitic position, so there’s inverse‐marking. Sometimes the Bugis language can omit ‘that’ in a sentence: (219) ma‐kare Amanda fapara=ko manumanu‐e VBZ‐say Amanada like=2sgABS bird‐DEF ‘Amanda says that you like birds’ → (lit. Amanda say you like bird) → [[makare Amanda]main clause + [faparako manumanue]sub. clause]complex sentence 3.3. Verb phrase As mentioned in chapter 26, verbs have patient and agent agreement, but there’s no gender agreement. In the formation of a verb phrase, the transitive verb may take an ergative proclitic to express the agent and an absolutive enclitic to express the patient. The intransitive verb may take an absolutive enclitic to express the agent. As can be appreciated throughout the text, these are treated as clitics due to the fact that are found in more than one lexical category: verbs, adverbs and prepositions. Figure 10. Clitics in Bugis. I You/you all formal You/you all informal She/he/it We/us Ergative ku‐/u‐ ta‐ mu‐ na‐ ki‐ Absolutive ‐ka ‐ki ‐ko ‐i ‐ki 36 (220) lo=i ma‐nari want=he/she VBZ‐dance ‘he/she wants to dance’ (221) lo=ka ma‐nari want=I VBZ‐dance ‘I want to dance’ (222) tabena=i pire pole po’po’ng‐e fall=it pear PREP tree‐DEF ‘it fall a pear from the tree’ In many occasions instead of having –i for the 3sg absolutive, there’s a –wi. There’s no difference in meaning at all. Looking at the examples it can be seen that –wi always may appear after just any vowel. This [w] is an epenthetic sound because it is only found after a vowel, but not after a consonant, therefore it can’t be an allomorph of –i, as otherwise it would appear just after any sound. So, this [w] is an epenthetic sound that sometimes appears after a vowel and it is also used to emphasize the agent or the patient. This epenthetic [w] also appears in front of the verb: (223) u‐w‐anre PRN.1sgERG‐E‐eat ‘I eat’ Let’s take a look at the ambiguity of the following constructions, which are translated to English with the same meaning: (224) na‐unu‐w=i oto‐e la Dafi 3sgERG‐kill‐E=3sgABS car‐DEF ART.M David ‘David kills the car’ (225) na‐unu‐w=i la Dafi oto‐e 3sgERG‐kill=3sgABS ART.M David car‐DEF *‘David kills the car’ In an ergative language, the absolutive in a transitive verb establishes the object, and the ergative the subject. Therefore we have na‐unu‐w=i → erga ve‐kill=absolutive or S‐kill=O. It is important to point out the ambiguity of a no contextualized form such as: (226) na=unu‐w=i he/she/it=kill‐E=he/she/it The ambiguity is due to fact that these clitics give information on agent, patient, and on person, but not on gender or if it is human or not as in the case of the example 37. That’s why that depending on the context, 37 examples (37) and (37) may have the same meaning and translation. However, taking the canonical order for Bugis example (224) is well translated and example (225) must say ‘The car kills David’. 3.4. Non‐verbal phrase Bugis allows generating sentences without any verb at all. On type of these sentences are the ones which in many languages require a copulative verb, such as in English. In this case, Bugis has no copulative verb, so the sentences are generated with no verb. We have already seen examples (165), (166) and (167) on chapter 3.2.6 Another way of generating sentences with no verbs is with the existential adverb ‘ngka’, which it is translated as ‘there’. (227) ngka anana there children ‘There are children’ 3.5. Adpositional phrase Bugis has free prepositions, therefore it has prepositional phrases. The basic order for this kind of phrases is PREP=agent marker + O. As we can see the preposition has the agent attached as an enclitic. (228) yase’=na mega‐e PREP=3sgABS table‐DEF ‘on the table’ (229) yawa=na mega‐e PREP=3sgABS table‐DEF ‘under the table’ Sometimes adpositional phrases are formed by using directional or locational particles such as ki or ku. These particles can be combined with verbal phrases to indicate motion as seen in the following examples: (230) ma‐tama=ka ku naforony‐e VBZ‐enter=1sgABS DIR kitchen‐DEF ‘I enter the kitchen’ (231) joka=i anana‐e ku sikula‐e walk=3pABS children‐DEF DIR school‐DEF ‘The children walk to the school’ 38 In the following example there is the use of a locational, by when the location is fixed: (232) ma‐cule anana‐e ki olona bola‐e VBZ‐play children‐DEF LOC front house‐DEF ‘The children play in front of the house’ When the location is inside or in a high place, it is used the locative ki plus alën ‘inside’ or ase ‘up’. Let’s take a look at an example: (233) aka pir‐e ki alën=na karanyjangng‐e there is pear‐DEF inside=3sgABS basket‐DEF ‘There is the pear inside the basket’ 3.6. Sentence types 3.6.1. Declarative One common structure for declarative sentences with transitive verbs is Agent=verb=Patient. The proclitic is the ergative that agrees in person with the agent, and the absolutive agrees in person with the patient. (234) Dafi na‐anre‐w=i manumanu David 3sgERG‐eat‐E=3sgABS chicken ‘David eats chicken’ Bugis is a split ergative‐absolutive language, which means that it has a double behavior. This double behavior can be seen in the declarative sentences. The declarative ergative‐absolutive structure goes as follows: (235) ma‐anre=ka oti=ø VBZ‐eat=1sgABS banana=ABS ‘I eat a banana’ Nominative‐absolutive structures: (236) meong ma‐unu=ka cat.NOM VBZ‐kill=1sgABS ‘The cat kills me’ (237) iya ma‐unu=i la Dafi PRN.1sg VBZ‐kill=3pABS ART.M David In intransitive verbs there’s only the enclitic, the absolutive which agrees in person with the agent. (238) ma‐ore‐w=i la Dafi VBZ‐cough‐E=3sgABS ART.M David ‘David coughs’ 39 3.7. Negation Negation is expressed by the particle ‘de´ followed by the ergative. (239) de’=u yoka ku bola‐ku NEG=PRN.1sgERG go PREP house‐PRN.1sg.GEN ‘I don’t go to my house’ (240) yoro guru de’=na ma‐baca bo’bo’ that teacher NEG=PRN.3sgERG VBZ‐read book ‘That teacher does not read a book’ 3.8. Questions There are several ways of forming questions in Bugis. One of them is, as with many languages, formed by a change of intonation when speaking. Besides intonation, there are two ways of constructing questions. The first way is with an interrogative pronoun: (241) yategi oto‐mu? which car‐PRN.2sg.GEN ‘Which is your car?’ (242) teegi asu‐e? where dog‐DEF ‘where is the dog?’ And the second way is with the particle ‘ga’ for yes‐no questions. (243) asu ga ye? dog Q this ‘Is this a dog?’ (244) yoro ga bola‐nu? That Q house‐PRN.2sgGEN ‘Is that your house?’ When negating a yes‐no question, the question particle is reduplicated and attached as a suffix to the negation particle. (245) de‐ga ga na=joka anana‐e ki sikola‐e NEG‐Q Q 3plERG=go children‐DEF PREP school‐DEF ‘Don’t the children go to the school?’ 40 3.9. Passive The passive voice is constructed by adding an i‐ at the verbal stem. Let’s take a look at some examples: (246) aga i‐anre what PASS‐eat ‘what will be eaten’ (247) i‐unu‐w=i la Dafi ku oto‐e PASS‐kill‐E=3sgABS ART.M David PREP car‐DEF ‘David is killed by the car’ On example (247) we can observe how the agent is placed at the end, so we have a VOS order and there must be the absolutive mark. Another way of forming the passive is with the prefix ri‐ which occurs before the transitive and intransitive verbs: (248) riasuro → to be ordered (249) ritiwi’ → to be taken (250) riagelli → to be angry (in Bugis this is an intransi ve verb) 3.10. Clauses 3.10.1. Possessive clauses Languages usually employ existential and/or locational structures to express the notion of possession, so possession it is not only expressed by a possessive pronoun but also for a verb such as ‘to have’. This is the case in Bugis. (251) Dafi puna yoro bola‐e David have that house‐DEF ‘David has that house’ 3.10.2. Complement clauses A prototypical complement clause is the one that functions as an argument (subject or object) of some other clause (Payne, 2010, p. 313). (252) lo’=i ma‐anre‐w=i roti‐e la Koert want=3sgABS VBZ‐eat‐E=3sgABS bread‐DEF ART.M Koert ‘Koert wants to eat the bread’ Example (252) is an object complement clause where the constituents have the following roles: 41 [lo’i manrewi rotie la Koert] → main clause [manrewi rotie] → complement clause 3.11. Adverbial clauses (253) pas ma‐jame i Amanda ujian‐e tappa bosi ADV VBZ‐do ART.F Amanda exam‐DEF then rain ‘Amanda was doing the exam when it started to rain’ In the previous example we have a simultaneous clause. If we compare it with English, we see that ‘pas’ is the equivalent of the English ‘when’, which is the particle that allows the simultaneity. In Bugis it goes at the beginning of the clause. (254) ma‐jame i Amanda ujian‐e na la‐ma‐kelong=i la Yani VBZ‐do ART.F Amanda exam‐DEF and IMPRF‐VBZ‐sing=3sgABS ART.M Yani ‘Amanda was doing the exam while Yani was singing’ If we take the literal meaning of (254) it says: ‘Amanda does the exam and Yani is singing’. However, we can see how the verb ‘majame’ does not take any clitic to express agent, while the verb ‘makelong’ it takes the absolutive to express agent, doing inverse‐marking. The two sentences are linked by a conjunction, and indeed, the meaning is the same as it infers simultaneity. 3.12. Coordination Let’s take, again, example (254) but in this case let’s have a literal translation of it. (255) ma‐jame i Amanda ujian‐e na la‐ma‐kelong=i la Yani VBZ‐do ART.F Amanda exam‐DEF and IMPRF‐VBZ‐sing=3sgABS ART.M Yani ‘Amanda does the exam and Yani is singing’ As it can be seen conjunction works just as in English, which is placing ‘na’ (and) in the middle of the two clauses. In the same way works disjunction: (256) ma‐anre jampu ato yo’ka ma‐pasayangki VBZ‐eat fruit or go VBZ‐kite ‘to eat fruit or to go to play with the kite’ 42 3.13. Reduplication Bugis uses reduplication in several ways, although some of the reduplications are already lexicalized and most of them are no longer productive. (257) manu ‘chicken’ → manumanu ‘bird’ (258) bola ‘house’ → bolabola ‘small house’ (in this case reduplica on acts as a diminu ve) (259) batu ‘stone’ → batubatu ‘pebble’ (260) ana ‘son/daughter’ → anana ‘children’ (in this case reduplica on is used to express plural, but it is lexicalized and no longer productive to create new forms of plural). 43 4. Kinship terminology The following list is a compilation of kinship terms in Bugis: Figure 11. Kinship terms in Bugis. English Father Mother Siblings Brother Sister Older brother Older sister Younger brother Younger sister Middle brother Middle sister Grandparents Great grandparents Uncle Aunt Cousin male Cousin female Son Daughter Children Mother in law Father in law Sister in law Brother in law Stepfather Stepmother Stepbrother Stepsister Cousin’s son Cousin’s daughter Cousin’s children Grandfather Grandmother Parents Nephew Niece Wife Husband Bugis ambo’ indo’ silasuɾang foɾorane para’kunrai daing (urane) daing (makunrai) anri (urane) anri (makunrai) anatanga anatanga nene’ nene’ utu amuɾe (urane) amuɾe (mankunrai) sapisang (urane) sapisang (makunrai) ana (burane) ana (makunrai) ana ana matua (urane) matua (makunrai) ifa (burane) ifa (makunrai) fura ambo’ fura indo’ amforo (urane) amforo (makunrai) anuɾe (urane) anuɾe (makunrai) ana’na sapisang laato nene indoambo anure (urane) anure (makunrai) baine lakkai Bugis has no gender inflection, but at the same time many of the kinship terms use the same generic word for referring either to male and female. Unless one needs to specify, in a regular speech gender is never specified. With no need of listing them all again, some of these terms are: dain ‘older brother/sister’; matua 44 ‘mother/father in law’; ifa ‘brother/sister in law’; amure ‘aunt/uncle’, etc. In case of need for sex distinction it is added the words urane ‘man’ or makunrai ‘woman’, so matua could be either mother or father in law, but then we have matua urane ‘father in law’ and matua makunrai ‘mother in law’. Some Austronesian languages have obligatory possessive marking for kinship terms; this is not the case for Bugis where it is just possible to name any kinship word without the need of adding the possessive. Since kinship terms are nouns, as any other noun may take the genitive suffix. (261) ambo’‐ku father‐1sgGEN ‘My father’ So, as said, it is possible to just say ambo ‘father’ when referring to any father, or ambo’ku ‘my father’ when speaking of a specific father. Bugis has specific non analyzable words for defining kinship in which other languages, such as English, require more than one word. For example, we find the following nuclear terms: daing ‘older brother/sister’; anri ‘younger brother/sister’; matua ‘mother/father in law’; ifa ‘brother/sister in law’. Some other forms are compounds, reduplications or lexicalized forms. There is the compound form anatanga ‘middle son/daugther’ where ana is son/daughter and tanga middle. From ana, again, we have the reduplicated form anana ‘children’, literally son‐son or daughter‐daugther or probably since there’s no gender distinction daughter‐son or vice versa. An exception to the fact of using the same word for both gender are the lexicalized words for brother fororane made up of foro + rane (urane) ‘man’, and sister para´kunrai made up of para´ + kunrai (makunrai) ‘woman’. Then, as a lexicalized form there is amforo ‘step brother/sister’, where foro is the same root as in brother and there is no current meaning for am. There are some compounds such as the formation of stepfather/stepmother with the word fura plus the word mother or father, where fura means ‘already’, so for example, fura indo’ ‘stepmother’ literally means ‘already mother’. According to Blust (2013, p. 352), Proto Malayo Polinesian show traces of a possible matrilineal society, these traces could still be found in the following: nene ‘grandmother’, nene’ ‘granparents’, nene’ utu ‘great grandparents’. In some languages, such as in Catalan, the word for parents is ‘pares’ (lit. fathers) and that includes the mother and the father. In this case, in Bugis we have that the including word for both, male and female derives from the female word. In Bugis, the word for parents is indoambo, literally motherfather, perhaps the fact of placing first the word for mother aslo tells us something about this possible matrilineal past. 45 Bugis uses the same word for nephew/niece and cousin’s son/daughter which is anure. Then for cousin’s children uses ana’na sapisang, which literally means the ‘children of the cousin’. So this last term is a descriptive one since there’s not a specific form for it, instead of being a lexicalized one or a nuclear form. The following is a kinship matrix in order to well‐establish the kinship relationship throughout the vocabulary. Figure 12. Kinship matrix for Bugis Gender Relative age ♂ ♀ +older Ambo’ –father + + Daing ‐Older sibling Anri –younger sibling Anatanga ‐Middle sibling Nene ‐ grandparents Nene’ utu ‐ greatgrandparents Amure – uncle/aunt Sapsiang ‐cousin Blood relative. kindred +2 + + + + + + Para’kunrai ‐sister + + + +1 . 0 ‐1 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +3 + + + + + +collateral + + + Ana – son/daughter Matua – mother/father in law Ifa –brother/sister in law Fura ambo ‐ stepfather Fura indo ‐ stepmother Amforo – stepbrother/sister Anure –cousin son/daughter Laato ‐ grandfather Nene ‐ grandmother Indoambo ‐ parents Anure – nephew/niece +younger + Indo’ ‐mother Fororane ‐brother + ‐ generation + + + + + + + + + 46 4.1. Historical kinship From Blust (2013) data and Wikipedia (2013) it comes out the following figure: Figure 13. Kinship in Proto‐Austronesian, Proto‐Malayo Polynesian, Proto‐Oceanic , Proto‐Polynesian and Bugis. Kinship person mother father child man, male Proto Austronesian *Cau *t‐ina *t‐ama *aNak *ma‐Ruqanay woman, female *bahi Proto Malayo Polynesian *tau *t‐ina *t‐ama *anak *laki, *ma‐ Ruqanay *bahi Proto Oceanic *taumataq *tina *tama *natu *nwaRuqane Proto Polynesian *tangata *tinana *tamana *tama *taqane Bugis ma’, tau indo’ ambo’ ana ana urane *pine, *papine *fafine makunrai Taking a look at the above it is easy to notice that Bugis shows obvious similarity with Proto‐Austronesian and Proto‐Malayo Polynesian, although that this fact is clear only in the terms for person and child. There might be some similarity as well in the term for father *t‐ama and ambo’. The most striking characteristic of the above figure is the similarity of the word in Proto‐Austronesian and Proto‐Malayo Polynesian *ma‐Ruganay and the Bugis one makunrai, similarity in form but not in meaning, as the proto form means man and the Bugis one means woman. At the same time, in Proto‐Malayo‐Polynesian there is an alternate form for man which is *laki, and in Bugis we find lakkai which means husband, so in this last case it could be a semantic specialization of the word *laki that went from the broader meaning of ‘man’ to the narrower meaning in Bugis of ‘husband’. Proto‐Malayo‐Polynesian had four sibling terms: 1) *kaka ‘older same sex sibling’, 2) *huaji ‘younger same sex sibling’, 3) *ñaRa ‘brother of a woman’, 4) *betaw ‘sister of a man’ As already mentioned, Bugis has lost the sex distinction, however it does preserves specific terms to refer to older or younger siblings, daing ‘older’ and anri ‘younger’. 47 5. Appendix 5.1. Transcription text The following is a two minute story transcribed, glossed and with and approximate translation from Bugis into English. The text has the following format with different colors, so it makes it easier to identify each part: Phonetics Phonology Gloss Translation 1.ˈlok:a maceˈɾita waʔˈtuku ˈbecu gampoˈŋe waʔˈtuku ˈbecu ɾiˈolo uˈfuʒi jokaˌnaŋe kusaloˈe ló.=k:a ma‐.ce.ɾí.ta uaʔ.tú.ku bé.cu kam.po.ŋ‐é aʔ.tú.ku bé.cu ɾi.ó.lo u.fú.ʒ=i jo.ka ná.ŋe kusalo‐e will=1sgABS VBZ‐tell story kid small village‐DEF kid small long ago like=I go swim river‐DEF I will tell a story of when I was a small kid in a village. Long ago when I was a kid I liked to go to swim 2. ˈak:a ˈsalo sidoˈp:e boˈla:ku biˈasaˌka ˈjoʔka ˈcam:e koɾo siˈbawa ˈcume na ˈna:ŋe siˈbawa á.k:a sá.lo si.dó.p:e bó.la:=k:u bi.á.sa=ˌka jóʔ.ka cú.m:e kó.ɾo si.bá.ua cú.me ná ná:.ŋe si.bá.ua river‐DEF there’s river near house=1sgABS usually=1sgABS go bath/swim there to with bath to the river that there’s near my home, I usually go to swim/bath there, to bath and swim with 3. si’loko naˈcaŋga biˈasa toˈmatuˌaku ˈjoʔka koˈɾo saloˈe fanasaŋˈlempo amaˈŋe ˌnap:a si.lóu=ku na.cáŋ.ga bi.á.sa to.má.tu.a=k:u jóʔ.ka ko.ɾó sa.lo‐é fa.na.saŋ lém.po a.ma.ŋé ná.p:a friends=1sgGEN banned usually parents=1sgGEN go there river‐DEF because flood could be then my friends. My parents usually banned to go to the river because there could be flood then 4. ˈmaliko a:ˈmate ˌdegaˈmitako taˈpi bjesa toki ˈjoʔka koˈɾo Má.li.=ko a:.má.t‐e ˌde.ga mí.ta.=ko ta.pí bi.á.sa=to.ki jóʔ.ka ko.ɾó flow=2sgABS will die no see=2sgABS but (Bahasa Indonesia) usually=1plABS(slang) go there you flow away you’ll die, nobody see you but we usually go there 5. naˈmu naʔcaˈni to:matuwat:a taʔtaˈtoŋi ˈjoka na:ŋeko saloˈe kufuˈɾaki na.mú naʔ.ca.n=í to:.ma.tú.ua.=t:a taʔ.ta tó.ŋi jóʔ.ka na:.ŋe.=ko sa.lo=é ku.fu.ɾá.ki although banned=1plABS parents=2plABS still we go swim=3plABS river‐DEF after 48 although it was banned by our parents we still go to swim at the river. After 6. ˈnaŋeko saloˈe biˈaseki ˈjoʔka ku buluˈe biˈaseki ˈjoʔka saˈp:a ˈbua ˈʒampu ná.ŋe.=ko sa.lo‐é bi.á.se=ki jóʔ.ka ku bu.lu‐é bi.á.se=ki jóʔ.ka sa.p:á bá.a ʒám.pu swim=1plABS river‐DEF usually=1plABS go PREP hill‐DEF usually=1plABS go look for fruit rose apple swim at the river we usually go to the hill, we usually go to look for rose apples 7. ˈmanre ʒampuˈato ˌjokaˈki ˈmaʔpasajaŋki saloˈe areˈga jokaˈki ˈmago lo koˈɾo kufuraˈki mán.re ʒám.pu á.to jó.ka=ki máʔ‐.pa.sa.jaŋ.ki sa.lo‐é jo.ka.=kí ˈma‐.gó.lo ko.ɾó ku.fu.ɾa.=kí eat fruit or go=1sgABS VBZ‐kite PREP river‐DEF go=1plABS VBZ‐ball there to after=1plABS to eat them or to play with kite in the river. We go to play football there, and after we usually take 8. ˈcume biaˈsatok:i ˈjoʔka ˈmita faˈgolo kus ˈdena ˈjoro saloˈe taˈpi ˈfalen oˈfuʒi ku cú.me bi.a.sé.to.=k:i jóʔ.ka mí.ta fa.gó.lo ku.s .dé.na jó.ro sa.lo‐é ta.pí fá.len o.fú.ʒ=i ku bath usually=1plABS go see people ball near that river‐DEF but really like=1sgABS PREP a bath. We go to see people playing football near that river, but I really like 9. jokaˈki maʔpaˈsaja ku ˌjokaˈki maʔpaˈsaja biˈa:saki meˈbuki paˈsaja joʔkaˈki ˈjolo jo.ka =kí maʔ‐ pa sá.ja ku jó.ka.=kí maʔ‐.pa.sá.ja bi.á.se.=ki me.bú.=ki pa.sá.ja joʔ.ka.=kí jó.lo go VBZ‐kite PREP go=1plABS VBZ‐kite usually=1plABS make=1plABS kite go=1plABS first to go us to play with kite and we go to play kite. We usually make the kite so we go first 10. saˈp:a aˈwo: naˈp:a jor ˈt: awoˈe ˈnap:a joʔka toˈki maˌl:i kartaˈsa sibaˈwan:a sa.p:á a.uó: na.p:á jo.ráˈ.t: au.oé na.p:á jóʔ.ka to.=kí má‐.l:i kar.ta.sá si.ba.úa=n:a looking for bamboo then cut=1plABS bamboo then go also=1plABS VBZ‐buy paper with=rope to look for bamboo then we cut the bamboo, then we go to buy the paper with a rope 11. naˈp:a iˈɾini meˈbu ierobeˈnaˈŋe pasaˌjaˈŋe ˈnap:a siˈbawani maˈcule ˌsibawaˈlok:u na.p:á i.ɾí.ni me.bú ie.ró.be na.ŋ‐é pa.sa.jaŋ‐é na.p:á si.ba.úa=ni ma‐.cú.le si.ba.úa ló.=k:u then we make this rope‐DEF kite‐DEF then with=1plABS ABS‐play with friend=1sgABS then we make the kite with the rope then I play with my friends 12. ku ˌlapaŋaˈŋe ˌmaʔpaˈsaja biˈasa kuɾaweˈŋe ˈjoro cereˈtaku aʔˈtuku ˈbecu ku la.pa.ŋa.ŋé maʔ‐.pa.sá.ja bi.á.sa ku.ɾa.ue.ŋ‐é jó.ro ce.re.tá.=k:u aʔ.tú.ku bé.cu PREP field VBZ‐kite usually afternoon‐DEF that story=1sgABS kid small in the field with the kite usually in the afternoon. That’s the story of when I was a small kid. 49 5.2. Glossary 5.2.1. Bugis – Catalan – English ' 'baɲa Noun. ànec; duck. 'b ɲa Noun. cobdícia; greed. ˈ ˈaːfi Noun. foc; fire. Adjective. nou; new. ˈaɖa ˈbaɾu Noun. mot; word. Noun. pedra; stone. ˈaɖ ˈbatu Noun. norma; norm. ˈaga1 ˈbeːtːa Adjective. vell; old. Pronoun. què; what. Verb. caure; falling down. ˈaga2 ˈbeʔˈbeʔ Variant: ˌaga. Pronoun. què; what. Noun. cabra; goat. ˈaha ˈbeʔmbeʔ Noun. diumenge; Sunday. Noun. canyella; shin. ˈaɟa ˈbiti no ho facis; don't do it. Variant: boˈla. Noun. casa; house. ˈal ˈbola Noun. bosc; forest. Adjective. negre; black. ˈamaʔ ˈbolo Noun. mare; mother. ˈboɲo Adjective. podrit; rotten. ˈamba Verb. pegar; to hit. ˈboʔˈboʔ Noun. llibre; book. ˈam ʔ Verb. empassar; swallow. Noun. fruita; fruit. ˈana ˈbua Noun. fill/a; son/daughter. ˈbulu Noun. turó; hill. ˈbu a Noun. flor; flower. ˈana ˈana Variant: ananaˈe. Noun. fills; children. ˈanri Noun. germà/na petit; younger sibling. repetir; repeat. ˈaɾo ˈbwas Noun. pit; chest. Adverb. d'acord; okay. ˈas̪ ˈbwaʔna Noun. nom; name. Adjective. pocs; few. ˈas̪u ˈced̪:e Variant: ˌas̪u; ˌasu. Noun. gos; dog. Noun. mico; monkey. ˈata ˈceiba Adjective. esclau; slave. ˈaʒe ˈcombi Noun. vagina; vagina. Noun. peu; foot. ˈaʔna ˈcomo Adjective. gras; fat. Noun. fill; son. ˈba ˈcouki Adverb. sí; yes. ˈbabi ˈcum:e Noun. bany; bath. Noun. porc; pig. ˈbaɖa ˈdaj Adverb. demà; tomorrow. ˈdaj makunˈrai ˈbajne Noun. muller; wife. ˈbale Noun. peix; fish. ˈbar Noun. granger; farmer. Noun. gat; cat. Noun. germà/na gran; older sibling. See main entry: . Noun. germana gran; older sister. ˈdaj uˈɾane See main entry: . Noun. germà gran; older brother. ˈdega Pronoun. ningú; nobody. 50 ˈduʔ a Noun. canella. ˈɟoka ˈɖaucili ˈkamːisi Noun. dijous; Thursday. Noun. lluna; moon. Noun. orelles; ears. Verb. caminar; to walk. ˈɖawa Noun. tinta; ink. ˈkeːta ˈɖua Adjective. dos; two. ˈk fat hi ha; there is. ˈkwe Adverb. aquí; here. ˈla:to Noun. avi; grandfather. ˈlaːso Noun. penis; penis. ˈɖua ˈlima See main entry: . Noun. dues mans; two hands. ˈe See main entry: e. ˈfalen realment; really. ˈfau Variant: ˌfau. Verb. parlar; speak. ˈfawno Noun. assassí; murderer. ˈfeːtu Adjective. set; seven. ˈfemo ˈfili Adverb. un altre cop; again. Noun. galta; cheek. ˈfura ˈamboʔ ˈfura ˈindoʔ Noun. pare adoptiu; stepfather. Noun. mare adoptiva; stepmother. ˈlampa Adjective. salvatge; wild. ˈlempo pla; flat. ˈletːe Noun. llamp; lightning. ˈl kː ʔ Noun. esquena; back. ˈlila Noun. llengua; tongue. ˈlima1 Adjective. cinc; five. ˈlima2 Noun. mà; hand. ˈlo Verb. voler; want. ˈloka See main entry: . Verb. jo vull; I want. ˈlutːu Verb. sortir volant; fly away. ˈfute Adjective. blanc; white. ˈfwole Verb. venir; to come. ˈgolo Noun. pilota; ball. ˈgora Noun. crit; scream. ˈiːa Pronoun. jo; I. ˈifa Noun. cunyat/cunyada; sister/brother in law. ˈiga Pronoun. qui; who. ˈiko Noun. tu (col·loquial); you sing. (colloquial). ˈi Noun. nas; nose. ˈmeːnu ˈiɾi1 Pronoun. tu (educat); you sing. (polite). ˈmega Variant: ˌmega. Adverb. molts; many. ˈiɾi2 Pronoun. vosaltres (paucal); you pl. (paucal). ˈmeo Noun. gat; cat. ˈiɾiʔ Noun. nosaltres (paucal); we (paucal). ˈmita Verb. mirar; to see. ˈis̪i1 Noun. dents; teeth. ˈmoɾewi ˈis̪i2 Noun. dents; teeth. ˈiti Noun. ànec; duck. ʔ ˈiʔn̠ɖo ˈjɐɾi ˈjasa Noun. dit gros; big finger. Variant: ˌjasan. Noun. nom; name. ˈjɐɾi ˈjɐɾi Noun. dits; fingers. ˈmaːgai Pronoun. com; how. ˈmaːta Noun. ull; eye. ˈmanre Verb. menjar; to eat. ˈmanu Noun. pollastre; chicken. ˈmaʔnu ˈmaʔnu See main entry: . Noun. ocell; bird. Verb. beure; to drink. Verb. estossegar ; cough. ˈmufi ˈna e See main entry: kaˈra. Verb. nedar; to swim. ˈnap:a llavors; then. ˈoːto Noun. cotxe; car. ˈo ko això és meu; this is mine. ˈje Pronoun. aquest; this. ˈoɾi Noun. cul; bottom. ˈjeso Adverb. avui; today. ˈoʔko Noun. mossegada; bite. ˈjolo Adverb. davant; in front. ˈpas mentre; while. ˈjoɾo1 Adjective. aquells/es; those. ˈpopːa Noun. cuixa; lap. ˈjoɾo2 Pronoun. aquella; that. ˈpoʔˈpeʔ Verb. pegar; to hit. 51 ˈpoʔˈpoʔ Noun. màgia negra; black magic. ˈtaw ˈfawno See main entry: . assassí; murderer. ˈpoʔpoʔ Noun. arbre; tree. ˈte:gi ˈpuʔˈpuʔ Adjective. desgastat; worn. ˈte:mu Noun. boca; mouth. Variant: ˌte:gi. Pronoun. on; where. ˈroti Noun. pa; bread. ˈtete Noun. pit; breast. ˈɾoki Verb. escriure; to write. ˈt l:u Adjective. tres; three. ˈɾoki suɾuˈe See main entry: . Verb. ha escrit; he ˈt l:uˈpːulo wrote. ˈɾumpu ˈsalo ˈt l:uˈpːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi Noun. fum; smoke. ˈtoni Noun. riu; river. ˈul ˈsaptu Noun. dissabte; Saturday. ˈsaɾo Noun. front; forehead. ˈs̪eʔɖi Adjective. u; one. ˈtaːsiʔ Noun. mar; sea. ˈtabe Noun. em sap greu; excuse me. ˈul ˈtaw Adjective. trenta-u; thirty one. Adverb. sempre; always. 1 Noun. mes; month. 2 Noun. lluna; moon. ˈulu Noun. cap; head. ˈunuɾu Noun. edat; age. ˈtahun Noun. any (indonesi); year (Indonesian). ˈtai ˈla:so See main entry: . Adjective. trenta; thirty. See main entry: . Noun. cardar; fuck. ˈut:u Noun. genoll; knee. ˈwai Noun. aigua; water. ˈwin:i Noun. nit; night. ˈʒampu Noun. persona; person. Noun. poma rosa; rose apple. ˌ ˌaga See main entry: ˈaga2. ˌamːaˈtea ˌiɾi ˈman Noun. mort; death. ˌas̪u See main entry: ˈas̪u. See main entry: . fillla; ˌɖuaˈpːulo Noun. dit del mig; middle finger. ˌlimaˈpːulo Adjective. cinquanta; fifty. ˌmega See main entry: silasoˈɾutːa. See main entry: . Adjective. vint; twenty. 1 See main entry: ˈmega. ˌsilasoˈɾut:a See main entry: . Noun. fill; son. ˌte:gi ˌfau See main entry: ˈfau. ˌiɾi ˈman See main entry: ˈjasa . ˌjɐɾi ˈta a daughter. ˌaʔna uˈɾa:neʔ Pronoun. vosaltres (tothom); you pl. (all ˌjasan ˌasu See main entry: ˈas̪u. ˌaʔna maʔˈkun̙rai 2 of us). Pronoun. nosaltres (tots); we (all of us). ˌtel:u ˈra:tu See main entry: ˈte:gi. See main entry: . Adjective. tres-cents; three hundred. A - a aˈ s̪uk:u See main entry: . el meu gos; my dog. aˈbjo Noun. mà dreta; right hand. aˈɖua Adjective. vuit; eight. aˈle:na1 Pronoun. ells (paucal); they (paucal). aˈle:na2 Noun. ell/a; he/she. aˈle:na ˈman Pronoun. ells/elles (inclusiu); they (all of us). aˈmuɾe Noun. oncle/tia; uncle/aunt. aˈnaʔna saˈpisa See main entry: . Noun. fills dels cosins ; cousin's children. aˈnuɾe1 Noun. neboda; niece. 52 aˈnuɾe2 Noun. fill/a del cosí ; cousin' son/daughter. amˈporo aˈnuɾe3 Noun. nebot/da; nephew /niece. Noun. germà/na adoptat; step sibling. ananaˈe aˈɾo:la See main entry: . el seu cor; his/her heart. See main entry: ˈana ˈana. anataˈ a Noun. fill/a mitjà; middle son/daughter. Noun. la meva neboda; my niece. aˈs̪u anar-se'n; to go out. anuˈɾek:u aˈs̪um:u See main entry: . el teu gos (col·loquial); your dog (colloquial). as̪eˈɾa Adjective. nou; nine. asej Adverb. dalt; over. aʔˈs̪o Noun. dia; day. See main entry: . el seu gos; his/her dog. aˈs̪un:a aˈs̪ut:a See main entry: . el teu gos (educat); your dog (polite). aˈwo: Noun. bambú; bamboo. Noun. nen; kid. aʔˈtuku aʔpaˈɖa:tu See main entry: . Adjective. quatre-cents; four hundred. akuˈro Adverb. allà; there. Noun. pare; father. amˈboʔ B - b Noun. ratolí; mouse. baˈlawo See main entry: . la teva casa (col·loquial); your house (colloquial). boˈla:mu beʔˈcu Adjective. petit; small. biˈasa Adverb. sovint; usually. boˈla boˈla:k:u1 See main entry: ˈbola. boˈla:t:a house. bosi boˈla:k:u2 See main entry: . la seva casa; his/her boˈlan:a See main entry: . la meva casa; my house. See main entry: . la teva casa (educat); your house (polite). Noun. pluja; rain. boʔˈbwaʔ buˈlu Noun. estómac; stomach. Noun. muntanya; mountain. C - c celːa Adjective. vermell; red. D - d deˈ negació; negation. Ɖ - ɖ ɖuaˈra:tu Adjective. dos-cents; two hundred. E - e e Variant: ˈe. Determiner. DEF; DEF. eɟu Noun. roba; cloth. 53 Ə ˈlu Noun. núvols; clouds. ˈn: Variant: ˈnː ˈn: ˈpulo ˈnː ʔˈpa . Adjective. sis; six. See main entry: ˈn: . Adjective. quatre; four. See main entry: . Adjective. seixanta; sixty. F - f faˈgolo Noun. jugador de futbol; football player. foɖoˈɾane faˈpara Verb. agradar; to like. fura faʔˈʒelo fem Noun. germà; brother. Adverb. ja/encara; already. Noun. dit índex; index finger. Adverb. següent; next. G - g gaˈu g ˈmː ʔ Adjective. blau; blue. guˈɾu Noun. professor; teacher. iˈwin:i Adverb. ahir; yesterday. iː ell/a; he/she. in̠ˈɖoʔ Noun. mare; mother. Noun. cabells; hair. I - i i particle de tracte per a les dones; treatment particle for women. iˈfak:u Noun. la meva cunyada; my sister in law. iˈja Adverb. sí (educat); yes (polite). iˈjo Adverb. sí (col·loquial); yes (colloguial). indoˈambo Noun. pares; parents. J - j jaˈseʔna sobre; on. jaˈwana Adverb. sota; under. jategi jɐˈnu See main entry: kaʔtaw. Variant: kaʔtaw. Noun. algú; somebody. joɾaˈnane Pronoun. quin; which. ajuda; help. ɟ ɟuˈma: Noun. divendres; Friday. K - k 54 k:e Pronoun. tu (formal); you (polite). k raɲɟa k:o Variant: ko. tu (col·loquial); you (colloquial). ki k:u Variant: ku. Pronoun. la meva/el meu; my. ka jo; I. kaˈlolo Noun. animal; animal. kaˈra Variant: ˈmufi. Verb. plorar; cry. Noun. cistella; basket. See main entry: ku. Variant: ku. Adverb. sobre; into / on. kiˈaseʔ Adverb. amunt; up. Adverb. avall; down. kiawa ko See main entry: k:o. See main entry: ki, k:u. Variant: ki. a sobre / a ku kaˈɾeb Noun. notícies; news. karˈtasa Noun. paper; paper. kuˈɖaɾa kaɾeˈba na Noun. notícies ell/a; news him/her. kufuɾa Adverb. després; after. kaʔtaw See main entry: jɐˈnu. Variant: jɐˈnu. Noun. algú; somebody. dins; into / on. Adjective. verd; green. tarda; afternoon. kuɾaˈwe Adverb. encara; still. k mmo L - l la particle de tracte per als homes; treatment particle for men. laˈk:aj Noun. marit; husband. ladː ʔ Adverb. molt; very. laganˈrani Verb. ell llença; he throws. tot just; just. lalo liˈma:m:u See main entry: . el teu braç; your arm. liˈmak:u See main entry: . el meu braç; my arm. See main entry: . el seu braç; his/her liˈman:a arm. M - m maˈbaca Verb. llegir; to read. maˈcule Verb. jugen; they play. maˈfalːa Adjective. calent; warm. maˈɟa: Adjective. dolent; bad. maˈtua maʔˈkun̙rai See main entry: . sogra; mother in law. maˈwan Verb. surar; to float. maˈʒame Verb. fer; do. maˈkanʒa Adjective. bo; good. macoloˈi Verb. es fon; it melts. maˈlopːo Adjective. gran; big. mageˈnitu Noun. casa; house. maˈn:asu Verb. cuinar; to cook. magolo Verb. jugar a futbol; play football. maˈnaɾi Noun. ballen; they dance. makeloˈni Verb. ell canta; he sings. maˈɾidi Adjective. groc; yellow. man ko nosaltres (col·olquial); we (colloquial). man nosaltres (formal); we (polite). maˈɾoki suɾuˈe See main entry: . Verb. està escrivint; is writing. maˈtinro Verb. dormir; to sleep. ki matamaˈi Verb. entrar (la seva); enter (his). matonoˈwi Verb. coure; bake. maˈtoa Adverb. vell; old. maʔ maˈtua Noun. sogre/a ; mother/father in law. maʔˈkun̙rai Noun. dona; woman. maʔˈlumu Noun. pollastre; chicken. maʔbiˈcaɾa Verb. parlar; to speak. maˈtua uˈɾa:neʔ father in law. See main entry: . Noun. sogre; Noun. persona; person. 55 maʔk ˈce Adjective. fred; cold. monroˈe m g ˈl:o: Adjective. bo; good. mufi m t :ʔ s̪o See main entry: . Noun. sol; sun. munˈri Adverb. darrere; behind. miˈki Verb. ell viu; he lives. encara; still. Noun. mossegada; bite. N - n nafaˈɖiɾika Verb. irrita; irritates. neˈne2 nafoɾoˈɲ Noun. cuina; kitchen. neˈne uʔtu nagoˈɾai neˈne1 Noun. àvia; grandmother. See main entry: . Noun. besavis; great grandparents. Verb. ella ha cridat; she screamed. Noun. avis; granparents. ˈka hi ha; there is. P - p paˌtaˈpːulo paraʔkunˈraj pas Adjective. quaranta; forty. pasaja Noun. estel; kite. Noun. germana; sister. mentre/sobtadament; while/suddenly. R - r raˈbaː Noun. dimecres; Wednesday. riá Adverb. enllà; away. ɾ ɾiˈolo fa temps; long ago. S - s 56 s̪aˈlaːs̪a Noun. dimarts; Tuesday. saˈneːi Noun. dilluns; Monday. saˈ aɾi Adverb. despús-demà; the day after tomorrow. sapˈseku saʔˈpisa Noun. cosins; cousins. s̪eˈpːulo Adjective. deu; ten. s̪eˈpːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi See main entry: . Adjective. onze; eleven. s ˈɾaːtu Adjective. cent; one hundred. siˈbaːwa Adposition. amb; with. siˈbawa Preposition. amb; with. sidoˈp:e a prop; near. sikoˈla Adjective. marró; brown. silaˈsuɾ Noun. germà (terme no marcat, genèric); sibling. silasoˈɾutːa Variant: ˌsilasoˈɾut:a. Noun. germans, família ; siblings, family. siwali Adverb. costat; beside. T - t taben:aˈi tanˈru See main entry: . Verb. cau; it falls. Noun. banya; horn. taʔˈɾasini Verb. ells estornuden; they sneeze. taʔˈwe Noun. gent; people. Noun. em sap greu; sorry. taʔdamˈpoːla Noun. telèfon; telephone. teleˈfon t ˈtːeʔ Verb. pegar; to hit. t ʔˈteʔ Noun. hora; hour. twˈa Noun. suc de coco; coconut juice. U - u uˈlːunːa See main entry: . el seu cap; his/her head. uˈlukːu See main entry: . el meu cap; my head. uˈpːanːa Pronoun. quan; when. uˈɾaːneʔ Noun. home; man. uleˈhu de; from. 57 W - w Noun. poble; village. waˈnua w nni Noun. nit; night. 5.2.2. English – Bugis A - a after Adverb. kufuɾa afternoon again kuɾaˈwe Adverb. ˈfemo age Noun. ˈunuɾu already Adverb. fura always animal Noun. kaˈlolo away Adverb. riá blue Adjective. gaˈu book Noun. ˈboʔˈboʔ Adverb. ˈtoni B - b back Noun. ˈl kː ʔ bad Adjective. maˈɟa: bake Verb. matonoˈwi ball Noun. ˈgolo basket Noun. k raɲɟa bath Noun. ˈcum:e behind Adverb. munˈri Adverb. siwali Adjective. maˈlopːo big finger ˈjɐɾi bird Noun. aˈwo: bamboo beside big bite Noun. ˈiʔn̠ɖo bottom Noun. ˈoɾi Noun. ˈmaʔnu bread ˈmaʔnu Noun. ˈroti breast Noun. ˈoʔko Noun. ˈtete brother Noun. foɖoˈɾane Noun. miˈki black brown Adjective. ˈbolo black magic Adjective. sikoˈla Noun. ˈpoʔˈpoʔ C - c car Noun. ˈoːto cloth Noun. eɟu cat Noun. ˈcouki clouds Noun. cousin's children ˈlu Noun. aˈnaʔna Noun. ˈmeo coconut juice Noun. twˈa cheek Noun. ˈfili cold Adjective. maʔk chest Noun. ˈaɾo cough Verb. ˈmoɾewi Noun. ˈmanu chicken Noun. maʔˈlumu children ˈana ˈce cousin' son/daughter Noun. aˈnuɾe saˈpisa cousins Noun. saʔˈpisa cry Verb. kaˈra Noun. ˈana 58 D - d daughter ˌaʔna DEF Determiner. e down Adverb. kiawa maʔˈkun̙rai do Verb. maˈʒame duck Noun. 'baɲa day Noun. aʔˈs̪o dog death Noun. ˌamːaˈtea Noun. ˈas̪u don't do it Noun. ˈiti ˈaɟa E - e ears Noun. ˈɖaucili eight Adjective. aˈɖua eleven Adjective. s̪eˈpːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi enter (his) eye Noun. ˈmaːta Verb. matamaˈ i excuse me Noun. ˈtabe F - f falling down Verb. ˈbeʔˈbeʔ fish Noun. ˈbale forty Adjective. paˌtaˈpːulo Adjective. farmer Noun. ˈbar five four fat Adjective. ˈcomo Adjective. ˈlima flat ˈlempo four hundred father Noun. amˈboʔ flower Noun. ˈbu father in law Noun. maˈtua foot few Adjective. ˈced̪:e football player fifty Adjective. ˌlimaˈpːulo fire Noun. ˈaːfi forehead forest ɖa:tu Friday Noun. ɟuˈma: from uleˈhu Noun. faˈgolo fruit Noun. ˈbua Noun. ˈsaɾo fuck Noun. ˈtai green Adjective. kuˈɖaɾa Noun. ˈaʒe uˈɾa:neʔ fingers Noun. ˈjɐɾi ˈjɐɾi Adjective. aʔpaˈ a Verb. ˈlutːu fly away ʔˈpa ˈla:so Noun. ˈal G - g goat Noun. ˈbeʔmbeʔ granparents good Adjective. maˈkanʒa great grandparents Adjective. m grandfather g ˈl:o: Noun. neˈne Noun. ˈla:to grandmother Noun. neˈne Noun. neˈne uʔtu greed Noun. 'b ɲa H - h 59 ˈmː ʔ hair Noun. g hand Noun. ˈlima Verb. monroˈe he lives he sings Verb. makeloˈ ni he throws Verb. laganˈra ni Verb. ˈɾoki he wrote suɾuˈe he/she Noun. aˈle:na his/her house boˈlan:a iː head Noun. ˈulu horn Noun. tanˈru help joɾaˈnane hour Noun. t here Adverb. ˈkwe house Noun. ˈbola hill Noun. ˈbulu ʔˈteʔ Noun. mageˈnitu Pronoun. ˈmaːgai his/her arm liˈman:a how his/her dog aˈs̪un:a husband Noun. laˈk:aj is writing Verb. maˈɾoki his/her head uˈlːunːa his/her heart aˈɾo:la I - i I I want Pronoun. ˈiːa ink ka into / on Verb. ˈloka in front Adverb. ˈjolo index finger Noun. ˈɖawa suɾuˈe Adverb. ki ku it falls irritates Verb. taben:aˈi it melts Verb. macoloˈi Verb. nafaˈɖiɾi Noun. faʔˈʒelo ka J - j just lalo K - k kid Noun. aʔˈtuku kitchen Noun. nafoɾoˈɲ kite Noun. pasaja knee Noun. ˈut:u L - l lap Noun. ˈpopːa Noun. ˈletːe lightning long ago ɾiˈolo M - m man Noun. uˈɾaːneʔ many Adverb. ˈmega middle finger ˈta a middle son/daughter Noun. ˌjɐɾi Noun. anataˈ Monday a Noun. saˈneːi 60 Noun. ˈceiba monkey month Noun. ˈul moon Noun. ˈkeːta Noun. ˈul mother Noun. ˈamaʔ Noun. in̠ˈɖoʔ mother/father in law mountain Noun. maˈtua my head uˈlukːu Noun. buˈlu my house boˈla:k:u mouse Noun. baˈlawo mouth Noun. ˈte:mu ˈtaw ˈfawno maˈtua maʔˈkun̙rai my my niece Noun. anuˈɾek: Noun. ˈfawno murderer mother in law my dog aˈ s̪uk:u u my sister in law Noun. iˈfak:u Pronoun. k:u liˈmak:u my arm N - n name Noun. ˈas̪ Noun. ˈjasa near Noun. kaˈɾeb Noun. aˈnuɾe Noun. ˈwin:i Noun. w Noun. kaɾeˈba nine nni Adjective. as̪eˈɾa na nobody Pronoun. ˈdega next Adverb. fem norm Noun. ˈaɖ niece Noun. aˈnuɾe nose Noun. ˈi deˈ nephew /niece night news him/her sidoˈp:e negation new news Adjective. ˈbaɾu ʔ O - o okay Adverb. ˈbwaʔna older sibling old Adjective. ˈbeːtːa Noun. ˈdaj older sister Noun. ˈdaj Adverb. maˈtoa one hundred Adjective. s tu makunˈrai older brother Noun. ˈdaj on jaˈseʔna uˈɾane one Adjective. ˈs̪eʔɖi ˈɾaː over Adverb. asej pig Noun. ˈbabi P - p paper Noun. karˈtasa parents penis Noun. ˈlaːso people Noun. taʔˈwe Noun. indoˈam bo play football Verb. magolo person Noun. ˈtaw Noun. maʔ R - r rain Noun. bosi really ˈfalen red Adjective. celːa 61 repeat ˈbwas right hand river Noun. aˈbjo Noun. ˈsalo rose apple rotten Adjective. ˈboɲo Noun. ˈʒampu S - s Noun. ˈsaptu Saturday scream Noun. ˈgora six Adjective. ˈn: sixty Adjective. ˈn: stepfather Noun. ˈtaːsiʔ slave seven Adjective. ˈfeːtu Adjective. ˈata small Adjective. beʔˈcu smoke Noun. ˈɾumpu she screamed Verb. nagoˈɾai shin Noun. ˈbiti son still Noun. silasoˈɾu Noun. boʔˈbwa sister/brother in law Noun. ˈifa sorry Noun. taʔdamˈpoːla speak Verb. ˈfau step sibling ʔ uˈɾa:neʔ Noun. ˈana Noun. paraʔkunˈraj mmo stomach son/daughter tːa Adverb. k mufi Noun. ˈaʔna Noun. ˌaʔna Noun. ˈfura ˈindoʔ Noun. jɐˈnu somebody siblings, family sister stepmother Noun. kaʔtaw sibling Noun. silaˈsuɾ ˈamboʔ ˈpulo sea Noun. ˈfura stone Noun. ˈbatu sun Noun. m t :ʔ s̪o Sunday Noun. ˈaha swallow Verb. ˈam ʔ Thursday Noun. ˈkamːisi to come Verb. ˈfwole Noun. amˈporo T - t teacher Noun. guˈɾu teeth they (paucal) Noun. ˈis̪i Pronoun. aˈle:n Noun. ˈis̪i a Noun. teleˈfon telephone to cook Verb. maˈn:asu they dance Noun. maˈnaɾi ten Adjective. s̪eˈpːulo they play Verb. maˈcule that Pronoun. ˈjoɾo they sneeze Verb. taʔˈɾasini thirty the day after tomorrow Adverb. saˈ then there aɾi Adjective. ˈt this Pronoun. ˈje this is mine they (all of us) Pronoun. aˈle:n a ˈman l:uˈ to eat ˈo ko those Adjective. ˈjoɾo three Adjective. ˈt l:u Verb. ˈmanre to float Verb. maˈwan to go out to hit aˈs̪u Verb. ˈamba Verb. ˈpoʔˈpeʔ pːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi Adverb. akuˈro ˈka l:uˈpːulo thirty one ˈnap:a there is ˈk fat Adjective. ˈt Verb. ˈmeːnu to drink Verb. t to like ˈtːeʔ Verb. faˈpara to read Verb. maˈbaca to see to sleep Verb. ˈmita Verb. maˈtinro three hundred ˈra:tu Adjective. ˌtel:u 62 to speak Verb. maʔbiˈca tongue Noun. ˈlila two treatment particle for men two hands ɾa e treatment particle for to walk Verb. ˈɟoka today Adverb. ˈjeso tomorrow tree twenty Adjective. ɖuaˈr Noun. ˈpoʔpoʔ a:tu Noun. s̪aˈlaːs̪a Tuesday Adverb. ˈbaɖa Noun. ˈɖua two hundred i women Verb. ˈɾoki to write ˈlima la Verb. ˈna to swim Adjective. ˈɖua Adjective. ˌɖuaˈpːulo U - u uncle/aunt under Noun. aˈmuɾe Adverb. jaˈwana up Adverb. kiˈaseʔ usually Adverb. biˈasa V - v vagina Noun. ˈcombi Adverb. ladː ʔ village Noun. waˈnua who Pronoun. ˈiga wife Pronoun. ˈaga Noun. ˈbajne wild Adjective. ˈlampa when Pronoun. uˈpːanːa with Adposition. siˈbaːwa where Pronoun. ˈte:gi which Pronoun. jategi woman Noun. maʔˈkun̙rai while ˈpas word Noun. ˈaɖa worn Adjective. ˈpuʔˈpuʔ very W - w want Verb. ˈlo Wednesday warm Adjective. maˈfalːa what water Noun. ˈwai we (all of us) Pronoun. ˌiɾi ˈman we (colloquial) man ko we (paucal) Noun. ˈiɾiʔ we (polite) man ki Noun. raˈbaː Pronoun. ˈaga while/suddenly white Preposition. siˈbawa pas Adjective. ˈfute Y - y 63 year (Indonesian) Noun. ˈtahun yellow Adjective. maˈɾidi yes Adverb. ˈba yes (colloguial) Adverb. iˈjo yes (polite) Adverb. iˈja yesterday Adverb. iˈwin:i you (colloquial) you (polite) k:o Pronoun. k:e you pl. (all of us) Pronoun. ˌiɾi you pl. (paucal) Pronoun. ˈiɾi Noun. ˈiko you sing. (colloquial) you sing. (polite) Pronoun. ˈiɾi younger sibling Noun. ˈanri your arm ˈman liˈma:m:u your dog (colloquial) aˈs̪um:u your dog (polite) aˈs̪ut:a your house (colloquial) your house (polite) boˈla:mu boˈla:t:a 5.2.3. Catalan – Bugis A - a a prop sidoˈp:e a sobre / a dins amb ku Verb. faˈpara agradar amunt Adposition. siˈbaːwa aquest Pronoun. ˈje Preposition. siˈbawa aquí Adverb. ˈkwe Adverb. kiˈaseʔ arbre Noun. ˈpoʔpoʔ ahir Adverb. iˈwin:i anar-se'n aigua Noun. ˈwai ànec això és meu ˈo ko aˈs̪u Noun. ˈiti avall Adverb. kiawa Noun. kaˈlolo avi Noun. ˈla:to àvia Noun. neˈne avis Noun. neˈne avui Adverb. ˈjeso joɾaˈnane animal algú Noun. jɐˈnu any (indonesi) Noun. ˈtahun Noun. kaʔtaw Adverb. akuˈro ˈtaw ˈfawno Noun. 'baɲa ajuda allà assassí Noun. ˈfawno aquella Pronoun. ˈjoɾo aquells/es Adjective. ˈjoɾo B - b 64 ballen Noun. maˈnaɾi bambú Noun. aˈwo: besavis Noun. neˈne uʔtu beure Verb. ˈmeːnu bo Adjective. maˈkanʒa Adjective. m g ˈl:o: bany Noun. ˈcum:e blanc Adjective. ˈfute boca Noun. ˈte:mu banya Noun. tanˈru blau Adjective. gaˈu bosc Noun. ˈal cotxe Noun. ˈoːto coure Verb. matonoˈwi crit Noun. ˈgora cuina Noun. nafoɾoˈɲ cuinar Verb. maˈn:asu cuixa Noun. ˈpopːa cul Noun. ˈoɾi C - c cabells Noun. g ˈmː ʔ caure Verb. ˈbeʔˈbeʔ cabra Noun. ˈbeʔmbeʔ cent Adjective. s calent Adjective. maˈfalːa cinc Adjective. ˈlima Verb. ˈɟoka caminar cinquanta Adjective. ˌlimaˈ canella Noun. ˈduʔ a Noun. ˈbiti canyella ˈɾaːtu pːulo cap Noun. ˈulu cardar Noun. ˈtai casa Noun. ˈbola com Pronoun. ˈmaːgai Noun. mageˈnitu cosins Noun. saʔˈpisa Verb. taben:aˈi costat Adverb. siwali cau cistella Noun. k raɲɟa ˈla:so Noun. 'b cobdícia ɲa cunyat/cunyada Noun. ˈifa D - d d'acord Adverb. ˈbwaʔna dalt despús-demà dit índex Adverb. saˈ Adverb. asej aɾi dits Noun. faʔˈʒelo Noun. ˈjɐɾi ˈjɐɾi darrere Adverb. munˈri deu Adjective. s̪eˈpːulo diumenge davant Adverb. ˈjolo Noun. ˈaha dia Noun. aʔˈs̪o divendres Noun. ˈkamːisi Noun. ɟuˈma: dolent Adjective. maˈɟa: dona Noun. maʔˈkun̙rai de uleˈhu dijous DEF Determiner. e dilluns Noun. saˈneːi demà Adverb. ˈbaɖa dimarts Noun. s̪aˈlaːs̪a dormir Verb. maˈtinro dents Noun. ˈis̪i dimecres Noun. raˈbaː dos dissabte Noun. ˈsaptu dos-cents dit del mig Noun. ˌjɐɾi Noun. ˈis̪i desgastat Adjective. ˈpuʔˈp uʔ després ˈta a dit gros Adverb. kufuɾa ˈjɐɾi Adjective. ˈɖua Adjective. ɖuaˈr a:tu Noun. ˈiʔn̠ɖo dues mans ˈlima Noun. ˈɖua E - e edat Noun. ˈunuɾu el meu braç liˈmak:u el meu cap uˈlukːu 65 entrar (la seva) el meu gos aˈ s̪uk:u el seu braç liˈman:a el seu cap uˈlːunːa ella ha cridat Verb. nagoˈɾai el seu cor aˈɾo:la ells (paucal) el seu gos aˈs̪un:a el teu braç liˈma:m:u ell/a Verb. matamaˈ iː Pronoun. aˈle:n a ells estornuden el teu gos (col·loquial) Verb. taʔˈɾasini aˈs̪um:u i es fon Verb. macoloˈi esclau Adjective. ˈata escriure Verb. ˈɾoki esquena Noun. ˈl suɾuˈe Pronoun. aˈle:n aˈs̪ut:a a ˈman ell canta Verb. makeloˈ em sap greu Verb. ˈam empassar ell llença Verb. laganˈra Noun. ˈtabe estel encara Adverb. k ʔ Noun. pasaja estómac Noun. boʔˈbwa Noun. taʔdamˈpoːla ni kː ʔ està escrivint Verb. maˈɾoki ells/elles (inclusiu) el teu gos (educat) ʔ estossegar Verb. ˈmoɾewi mmo mufi ni ell viu Noun. aˈle:na enllà Verb. monroˈe Adverb. riá F - f ɾiˈolo fa temps fillla ˌaʔna maʔˈkun̙rai fred Adjective. maʔk Noun. ˈana front Noun. ˈsaɾo fruita Noun. ˈbua fum Noun. ˈɾumpu fer Verb. maˈʒame fills fill Noun. ˈaʔna fills dels cosins Noun. ˌaʔna fill/a uˈɾa:neʔ Noun. aˈnaʔna Noun. ˈana saˈpisa fill/a del cosí Noun. aˈnuɾe fill/a mitjà Noun. anataˈ ˈana ˈce a flor Noun. ˈbu foc Noun. ˈaːfi a G - g galta Noun. ˈfili gat Noun. ˈcouki germà (terme no marcat, Noun. ˈut:u gent Noun. taʔˈwe germà Noun. foɖoˈɾane Noun. ˈanri genèric) Noun. ˈmeo genoll germà/na petit Noun. silaˈsuɾ germana Noun. paraʔku germà gran Noun. ˈdaj uˈɾane germà/na adoptat Noun. amˈporo nˈraj germana gran Noun. ˈdaj makunˈrai germà/na gran Noun. ˈdaj 66 germans, família Noun. silasoˈɾu tːa gos Noun. ˈas̪u gras Adjective. ˈcomo gran Adjective. maˈlopːo groc Adjective. maˈɾidi home Noun. uˈɾaːneʔ hora Noun. t Noun. ˈbar granger H - h Verb. ˈɾoki ha escrit hi ha ˈk fat ˈka suɾuˈe ʔˈteʔ I - i irrita Verb. nafaˈɖiɾika J - j ja/encara jo Adverb. fura Pronoun. ˈiːa jo vull Verb. ˈloka jugar a futbol Verb. magolo jugador de futbol ka jugen Verb. maˈcule llamp Noun. ˈletːe Pronoun. k:u llavors ˈnap:a boˈlan:a llegir Verb. maˈbaca Noun. faˈgolo L - l la meva casa boˈla:k:u la meva/el meu la meva cunyada Noun. iˈfak:u la meva neboda la seva casa la teva casa (col·loquial) Noun. anuˈɾek: u boˈla:mu la teva casa (educat) boˈla:t:a llengua Noun. ˈlila llibre Noun. ˈboʔˈboʔ lluna Noun. ˈkeːta Noun. ˈul M - m mà Noun. ˈlima mà dreta Noun. aˈbjo màgia negra Noun. ˈpoʔˈpoʔ mentre/sobtadament mare adoptiva Noun. ˈfura pas ˈindoʔ mes Noun. ˈul mar Noun. ˈtaːsiʔ marit Noun. laˈk:aj mico Noun. ˈceiba mare Noun. ˈamaʔ marró Adjective. sikoˈla mirar menjar Verb. ˈmanre Verb. ˈmita molt Adverb. ladː mentre ˈpas molts Adverb. ˈmega Noun. in̠ˈɖoʔ ʔ 67 mort Noun. ˌamːaˈtea mossegada Noun. ˈoʔko Noun. miˈki mot Noun. ˈaɖa muller Noun. ˈbajne Noun. buˈlu muntanya N - n nas Noun. ˈi ʔ no ho facis neboda Noun. aˈnuɾe nebot/da nedar negació nom e norma Noun. ˈas̪ ˈman Noun. ˈaɖ negre Adjective. ˈbolo nen Noun. aʔˈtuku ningú Pronoun. ˈdega nit Noun. ˈwin:i notícies ell/a Noun. kaɾeˈba na man ko nou nosaltres (formal) man Adjective. ˈbaɾu Adjective. as̪eˈɾa ki nosaltres (paucal) ˈlu núvols Noun. orelles Noun. ˈɖaucili pla ˈlempo Noun. ˈiɾiʔ nni Pronoun. ˌiɾi Noun. kaˈɾeb notícies nosaltres (col·olquial) deˈ Noun. w nosaltres (tots) Noun. ˈjasa Noun. aˈnuɾe Verb. ˈna ˈaɟa O - o ocell Noun. ˈmaʔnu on Noun. aˈmuɾe oncle/tia ˈmaʔnu onze Pronoun. ˈte:gi Adjective. s̪eˈpːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi P - p pa Noun. ˈroti paper Noun. karˈtasa Verb. ˈpoʔˈpeʔ plorar Verb. kaˈra Noun. amˈboʔ Verb. t pluja Noun. bosi pare pegar Verb. ˈamba ˈtːeʔ peix Noun. ˈbale poble Noun. waˈnua ˈamboʔ penis Noun. ˈlaːso pocs Adjective. ˈced̪:e pares Noun. indoˈambo persona podrit parlar Verb. ˈfau Adjective. ˈboɲo pare adoptiu Noun. ˈfura Noun. maʔ Verb. maʔbiˈcaɾa particle de tracte per a les dones i particle de tracte per als homes pedra Noun. ˈbatu Noun. ˈtaw la Noun. ˈmanu pollastre petit Adjective. beʔˈcu peu Noun. ˈaʒe poma rosa pilota Noun. ˈgolo porc pit Noun. ˈaɾo professor Noun. ˈtete Noun. maʔˈlumu Noun. ˈʒampu Noun. ˈbabi Noun. guˈɾu 68 Q - q quan Pronoun. uˈpːanːa quatre-cents Adjective. aʔpaˈ quaranta ɖa:tu Adjective. paˌtaˈ pːulo quatre què Adjective. ʔˈpa qui Pronoun. ˈiga quin Pronoun. jategi roba Noun. eɟu sogre Noun. maˈtua Pronoun. ˈaga Pronoun. ˈaga R - r ratolí Noun. baˈlawo ˈfalen realment repetir ˈbwas riu Noun. ˈsalo S - s salvatge Adjective. ˈlamp sí Adverb. ˈba Adverb. fem següent seixanta Adjective. ˈpulo ˈn: sempre Adverb. ˈtoni set Adjective. ˈfeːtu uˈɾa:neʔ sí (col·loquial) a sí (educat) Adverb. iˈjo sogre/a Adverb. iˈja sol ˈn: Noun. maˈtua Noun. m t :ʔ s̪o Verb. ˈlutːu sis Adjective. sobre jaˈseʔna sota Adverb. jaˈwana Adverb. ki sovint Adverb. biˈasa maˈtua maʔˈkun̙rai suc de coco sogra sortir volant surar Noun. twˈa Verb. maˈwan T - t tarda kuɾaˈwe trenta-u tu (col·loquial) Adjective. ˈt telèfon Noun. teleˈfon tinta trenta pːulo ˈs̪eʔɖi Noun. ˈɖawa tres tot just lalo Adjective. ˈt l:uˈpːulo Noun. ˈiko l:uˈ Adjective. ˈt tres-cents ˈra:tu l:u Adjective. ˌtel:u k:o tu (educat) Pronoun. ˈiɾi tu (formal) Pronoun. k:e turó Noun. ˈbulu U - u u Adjective. ˈs̪eʔɖi ull Noun. ˈmaːta un altre cop Adverb. ˈfemo 69 V - v vagina Noun. ˈcombi vell Adjective. ˈbeːtːa Adverb. maˈtoa venir Verb. ˈfwole verd Adjective. kuˈɖaɾa vermell Adjective. celːa vint Adjective. ˌɖuaˈpːulo voler Verb. ˈlo vosaltres (paucal) Pronoun. ˈiɾi vosaltres (tothom) Pronoun. ˌiɾi vuit ˈman Adjective. aˈɖua 68 6. 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